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THE 


ART   OF  TEACHING 


BY 


JOHN   OGDEN,  A.M. 

Principal  of  the  Ohio  Central  Norm  a  i.  School;  Author  of  "Science  of  Education," 
"Outlines  of  Pedagogical  Scikxck,"  etc. 


07  THB 


U1TIVERSIT7] 

NEW- YORK     •:•     CINCINNATI     •:•     CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


0^> 


ox^ 


HQ&Srij 


COPYRIGHT,  1879, 

VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG  &  CO. 


PREFACE. 


A  firm  conviction  that  all  the  essentials  pertaining  to  Ed- 
ucation as  a  Science,  and  to  Teaching  as  an  Art,  can  be 
formulated  into  a  system  suited  to  the  needs  and  conven- 
iences of  normal-school  and  private  learners,  has  led  to  the 
preparation  of  this  volume- 
It  deals  exclusively  with  those  questions  and  duties  that 
relate  to  the  teacher's  work,  such  as  organization,  study,  recita- 
tion, government,  etc.  of  schools  of  various  grades,  together 
with  some  special  methods  of  teaching  the  branches  them- 
selves. 

It  is  the  author's  opinion,  formed  and  strengthened  through 
a  quarter  of  a  century's  almost  exclusive  labor  in  normal 
schools  and  teachers'  institutes,  that  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  mistakes  and  failures  in  teaching  is  attributable  to  the  want 
of  a  consistent  system,  and  of  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
duties  involved,  rather  than  to  any  essential  lack  of  the 
knowledge  to  be  imparted,  however  great,  in  general,  that 
want  may  be.  More  depends  upon  the  manner  of  imparting 
and  enforcing  truth,  than  upon  the  mere  possession  of  it,  as 
such. 

Hence  the  very  great  importance  of  professional  training,  to 
supplement,  and  to  classify  and  make  vital,  the  mere  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  in  the  several  branches  of  science. 

This  implies  true  method,  the  acquisition  of  which,  so  far  at 
least  as  this  depends  upon  professional  training,  proceeds  upon 

(iii) 


IV  PREFACE. 

the  plan  that  the  child  must  be  studied  first,  in  all  its  physical 
and  psychical  characteristics  and  relations,  as  a  thing  or  object 
to  be  treated  or  educated ;  second,  that  the  study  of  science  or 
knowledge  must  be  pursued,  not  as  an  end,  but  as  a  means  for  ac- 
complishing an  end,  viz.,  the  development  and  refinement  of  all 
of  man's  faculties,  soul  and  body;  third,  that  the  study  and  prac- 
tice of  methods  in  harmony  with  the  end  to  be  attained,  viz.,  the 
complete  development  of  these  faculties  by  the  harmonious 
blending  of  all  possible  educational  forces  in  the  exercises  of 
the  school-room,  must  be  the  one  great  aim  of  the  true  teacher. 
These  are  the  leading  features  underlying  this  system,  to 
which  the  student  of  pedagogics  is  earnestly  invited. 

Worthington,  Ohio,  July  25,  1879. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
INTRODUCTION  7 

CHAPTER  FIRST— SCHOOL-ROOM  DUTIES 7 

Article  I.  Preliminaries 10 

Section       I.  Opening  Exercises 10 

Section    II.  Organization 19 

Suction  III.  Assigning  Lessons  30 

CHAPTER  SECOND— STUDY 43 

Article       I.  Objects  and  Ends 45 

Article    II.  Requisites  and  Modes , 51 

Article  III.  Means  of  Securing  Study 61 

CHAPTER  THIRD— RECITATION 85 

Article      I.  Objects  and  Aims 85 

Article    II.  Conditions  and  Requisites 92 

Article  III.  Methods Ill 

Article  IV.  Specific  Methods... 139 

CHAPTER  FOURTH— SCHOOL  BUSINESS 155 

Article      I.  Objects,  etc 156 

Article    II.  Requisites,  etc  , 166 

Article  III.  Mode  of  Conducting 172 

CHAPTER  FIFTH— RECREATION 179 

Article      I.  Necessity  and  Objects 180 

Article    II.  Requisites,  etc 187 

Article  III.  The  Varieties 194 

CHAPTER  SIXTH— SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT 205 

Article      I.  Objects  and  Means 207 

Article    II.  Qualifications  and  Requisites 241 

Article  III.  Qualities  and  Methods 245 

(v) 


sir^ro^sTS  x« 


Opknixg  Exer- 
cises. 


Organization. 


The  Assia 

Lessons 


Heading  the  Scriptures. 
Singing.    Chanting. 
Prayer. 


Enrollment  and  seating,  etc. 
Examination  and  classification. 
Order  of  Exercises. 


ntxg  of    ) 


Definiteness.  Extent.  Not  too  much  assigned 
at  once.  Points  of  interest -and  difficulty.  Man- 
ner of  recitation  named. 


(vi) 


'uhiversitt; 

ART    OF   TEACHING. 


CHAPTER   I. 

SCHOOL-ROOM  DITTIES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

We  come  now  to  consider  that  part  of  the  Science 
of  Education,  which  relates  more  particularly  to 
school-keeping,  or  special  Didactics, — that  part  in 
which  the  special  applications  are  shown, — that  part 
for  which  the  author's  previous  work  on  the  subject 
has  in  some  degree,  it  is  hoped,  prepared  the  mind  of 
the  student. 

It  might  he  thought  by  some  to  he  sufficient  had 
we  confined  ourselves  exclusively  to  this  department 
of  the  science;  but  it  must  be  apparent  to  any  one, 
on  mature  reflection,  that  to  commence  the  subject 
here,  would  be  to  commence  it  in  the  middle  ;  it  would 
be  to  take  things  for  granted,  whose  truths  had  never 
been  demonstrated.  It  would  be  downright  empir- 
icism. It  would  be  like  the  attempt  of  the  merest 
charlatan  to  establish  a  science  upon  naked  as- 
sumption, or  upon  a  limited  number  of  experiments; 
and  it  lias  been  shown  in  another  place,  that  experi- 
ment is  no  science  or  any  part  thereof.  What  is  true 
in  the  individual  case,  is  of  no  determinative  value  until 
it  can  be  shown  that  all  possible  cases,  falling  under 
the  same  head,  are  true  also.     Individual  facts,  there- 

(?) 


o  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

fore,  prove  nothing  conclusively  in  establishing  gen- 
eral truths,  until  they  can  be  generalized.  Experi- 
ments are  useful  chiefly  in  discovery,  and,  so  far  as 
they  go,  they  give  good  testimony ;  but  their  employ- 
ment in  the  establishment  of  general  principles,  would 
prove  rather  tedious  for  this  utilitarian  age.  Hence 
we  must  have  general  truths  in  all  sciences  whose 
principles  are  susceptible  of  demonstration.  From 
these  we  may  deduce  specialties. 

This  seems  to  be  the  precise  character  of  this  sci- 
ence. It  answers  to  all  the  conditions.  The  fact  is, 
for  every  operation  in  nature  there  is  a  cause ;  and 
every  step  in  growth  or  education  has  its  antecedents. 
Every  act  performed  is  either  right  or  wrong.  There 
are  no  indifferent  ones ;  and  every  thing  done  in  school 
is  either  of  one  class  or  the  other.  If  the  act  is  right, 
there  is  a  reason  for  it,  which  may  be  sought  out, 
generalized,  and  made  a  guide  to  subsequent  acts  and 
investigators.  If  it  is  wrong,  there  is  also  a  reason 
for  it,  which  may  be  demonstrated  and  developed  in 
such  a  way  that  it  may  become  a  warning  to  ah  who 
pass  over  that  same  way. 

The  whole  subject  of  special  didactics,  therefore, 
may  thus  be  referred  to  general  laws,  whose  principles 
underlie  the  whole  superstructure  of  human  culture. 
Every  step  in  practice,  if  it  is  a  right  s*.ep,  is  only  the 
application  of  a  general  principle  to  a  particular  cas?, 
and  can  therefore  be  referred  back  to  theory  or  gen- 
eral principles  for  authority ;  so  that  there  may  be  as 
much  definiteness,  miy,  certainty,  m  the  art  of  teaching, 
when  once  it  is  thoroughly  apprehended,  as  in  any 
other  art.  The  very  existence  of  the  science  of  edu- 
cation and  art  of  teaching,  as  we  have  before  shown, 
is  predicated  upon  this   truth.      But  this   discussion 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  V 

will  not  be  continued  further  than  merely  to  show 
the  connection  and  mutual  dependence  of  theory  and 
practice,  or  general  and  special  didactics. 

In  presenting  the  practical  part  of  this  subject, 
special  attention  will  be  given,  not  only  to  methods 
of  teaching  and  learning,  but  to  the  reference  of  these 
to  the  general  principles  discussed  heretofore;  so 
that  nothing  may  seem  to  be  taken  for  granted,  or 
adopted  without  authority.  The  whole,  therefore, 
will  have  the  ajipearance,  at  least,  of  a  perfect  system. 

The  Home  and  Miscellaneous  Duties  have  already, 
to  a  great  extent,  been  disposed  of.  As  far  as  it  will 
become  necessary  to  refer  to  them  again,  they  will  be 
blended  with  those  of  the  school-room,  since  their 
nature  and  influence  are  so  similar. 

The  topics  for  consideration  have  been  named  in  the 
introduction  to  the  Science  of  Education,  and  may, 
we  believe,  be  made  to  include  every  thing  pertaining 
to  the  duties  of  teaching  and  managing  schools;  and 
what  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  is  the 
exact  coincidence  of  the  two  parts,  or  of  the  science 
and  the  art.  Not  a  single  application  iu  the  latter, 
that  does  not  find  its  principle  in  the  former.  Not  a 
stroke  in  art  that  does  not  find  its  counterpart  in 
science.     The  one  is  the  echo  of  the  other. 

The  topics  for  investigation  are  the  following,  which 
we  propose  to  take  up  in  the  order  in  which  they 
occur:  1,  Preliminaries;  2,  Study;  3,  Recitation ;  4, 
Business;  5,  Recreation  ;  6,  Government. 

In  the  discussion  of  these  topics  we  propose  to  con- 
sider the  young  teacher  about  to  assume,  it  may  be  for 
the  first  time — the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his 
office.  We  shall  attempt  to  meet  and  dispose  of  every 
duty  and  difficulty  that  he  will  be  likely  to  encounter. 


10  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

Article  1— Preliminaries. 

Under  this  head  we  propose  to  consider  every  thin^ 
that  relates  to  the  organization  of  schools,  the  open- 
ing exercises,  and  the  mode  of  assigning  lessons  and 
making  preparation  for  study. 

Section  1 — Opening  Exercises. — We  place  these 
first,  because  we  think,  in  point  of  time,  they  stand 
first;  and  because  we  believe  the  organization  and 
other  duties  can  be  much  more  easily  conducted  after 
those  exercises  have  been  disposed  of  in  a  proper 
manner. 

I  helieve  it  is  universally  admitted  that  those  per- 
sons succeed  best  in  their  pursuits,  of  whatever  char- 
acter they  are,  who  attach  the  greatest  importance  to 
them ;  that  their  success  is  usually  measured  by  their 
devotion,  and  the  estimation  in  which  they  hold  their 
employment,  other  things  being  equal.  So,  to  apply 
the  same  principle  to  teaching,  I  have  found,  almost 
without  exception,  that  those  teachers  who  were  actu- 
ated by  a  deep  and  abiding  sense  of  the  responsibili- 
ties of  their  calling,have  succeeded  best.  The  fact  is, 
that  Providence,  however  provident  he  may  be, 
does  not  usually  help  those  who  do  not  help  them- 
selves. Much  less  will  he  help  those  who  ignore  his 
existence,  and  consequently  will  not  apply  to  him  for 
aid.  A  great  many  of  our  teachers  fail  for  want  of 
earnestness.  They  do  not  take  hold  of  their  work- 
as  if  they  felt  their  souls  wrapped  up  in  it.  They 
set  a  low  estimate  upon  their  duties  and  labors,  and  it 
can  not  be  expected  that  their  scholars  will  do  more. 
They  fail  to  command  that  respect  for  themselves  and 
for  the  school  which  is  so  necessary  to  success.  The 
stream   will   rise  no  higher   than    the   fountain.     To 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  11 

make  others  feel,  we  must  feel  ourselves.  To  warm 
their  hearts,  the  fire  must  burn  within  our  own  bosoms. 
An  iceberg  emits  no  rays  of  heat,  however  majestic  it 
may  stand.  The  north  wind  seldom  breaks  the  fetters 
>f  winter,  and  wakes  the  young  flowers  to  life;  but 
the  silent,  unobtrusive  rays  of  the  sun  penetrate  the 
very  heart  of  Nature,  and  start  the  warm  currents  of 
her  life-blood  through  every  vein  and  artery  in  her 
broad  bosom.  So  that  native  earnestness  and  unde- 
viating  honesty,  which  spring  up  in  the  heart  deeply 
imbued  with  a  love  for  the  calling,  will  usually  melt 
down  the  hardest  cases  and  surmount  the  most  inveter- 
ate difficulties,  though  other  qualifications  may  be  by 
no  means  extraordinary. 

Again  :  others  fail  for  want  of  system.  I  am  per- 
suaded that  the  errors  and  failures  in  teaching  are 
tore  the  result  of  a  want  of  system  or  ability  to  use 
nowledge  than  from  any  want  of  knowledge  itself. 
!t  is  said  that  "  knowledge  is  power,"  and  in  the  sense 
n  which  that  maxim  is  generally  understood,  it  is 
:rue ;  but  knowledge  is  not  power  any  further  than  it 
jan  be  wielded  to  accomplish  results,  any  more  than 
a  huge,  overgrown  body  void  of  sense  or  reason  is 
power.  It  is  powerful  perhaps  in  the  same  sense  as  the 
earthquake,  the  volcano  or  the  hurricane  is  powerful ; 
powerful  for  mischief  and  destruction;  powerful,  it 
may  be,  like  the  locomotive, — unable  to  accomplish  a 
single  good  result,  until  directed  by  the  skillful  hand 
of  the  engineer.  Such  is  mere  knowledge  without 
system. 

I  am  persuaded,  also,  that  without  system,  at  least 
one  half  of  the  teacher's  power  is  as  good  as  thrown 
away,  since  it  is  expended,  for  the  most  part,  in  mis- 
directed efforts;  that  with  the  same  amount  of  scien- 


12  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

tific  knowledge  now  possessed  by  the  profession  of 
feachers,  twice  the  amount  of  good  might  be  accom- 
plished, were  this  vast  force  directed  by  some  well- 
digested  plan  of  operation.  No  one  can  succeed  in 
any  department  of  business  without  a  system  or  a  plan 
by  which  to  work.  If  farmers,  merchants,  mechanics 
and  business  men  generally,  manifested  no  more  con- 
cern about  their  employment,  and  worked  as  objectless 
and  aimless  as  many  teachers  do,  there  would  be  uni- 
versal failure  and  bankruptcy  all  over  the  land.  Sys- 
tem guides  and  gives  success  to  the  military  general  in 
his  battles  and  campaigns.  It  guides  the  scholar  in 
his  investigations,  and  the  statesman  in  his  legislation. 
In  a  word, the  worlds  are  guided  by  it,  in  their  cease- 
less whirl  in  space.  The  seasons  go  and  come  accord- 
ing to  the  plan  laid  down  for  their  observance;  and 
day  and  night  are  perpetual  in  their  round.  Sys- 
tem reigns  in  every  department  of  nature  and  of  suc- 
cessful art.  It  is  the  secret  of  success  every-where  else, 
and  it  would  not  seem  probable  that  teaching  forms 
any  exception,  save  that  the  necessity  seems  greater 
here,  in  proportion  to  the  greatness  of  the  duties  and 
responsibilities. 

This  want  of  system  in  teaching  comes,  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  from  a  want  of  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  intention  and  importance  of  the  duties,  and 
a  frank  acknowledgment  of  them  in  the  presence  of 
the  school.  No  school  can  succeed  well,  when  there 
is  not  this  clear  understanding  and  cordial  reciprocity 
on  the  part  of  all  concerned.  I  know  of  no  better 
way  of  bringing  about  this  state  of  things,  than  for 
the  teacher  to  lead  off  in  the  matter,  not  waiting  for 
parent  or  pupil,  but  to  show  by  his  conduct  and  con- 
versation, that  he  is  deeply  in  earnest  in  this  matter. 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  13 

But  earnestness  without  prudence,  will  avail  but  little. 
Great  energy  without  skill,  would  resemble  the  loco- 
motive without  a  hand  to  guide  it;  and  great  powers 
minus  humility,  would  become  offensive  and  nugatory 
where  great  interests  are  at  stake. 

Let  us  instance  two  cases  to  illustrate  the  point. 
One  teacher,  with  hat  in  hand,  and  blustering,  it  may 
he,  from  his  recent  exertion,  enters  the  school-room 
about  the  time  to  open  the  school.  Presently  a  rapid 
succession  of  heavy  raps,  or  the  loud  ringing  of  the 
bell  is  heard  in  the  vicinity  of  the  teacher's  desk;  and 
through  all,  and  above  all,  the  stentorian  voice  of  the 
teacher  is  heard  calling  to  order  (?).  By  repeated 
effort,  and  great  exertions,  this  is  so  far  accomplished 
at  length,  that  one  accustomed  to  such  scenes  would 
hardly  be  mistaken  as  to  the  intention,  at  least.  Order 
being  thus  far  secured,  without  one  moment's  reflec- 
tion, to  say  nothing  about  opening  exercises  of  a 
formal  character,  the  classes  are  called,  and  the  teacher 
and  pupil  rush  into  the  arena  of  duties  tc  contend  and 
toil,  to  fret  and  sweat  (I  will  not  say  swear),  over  the 
day's  difficulties. 

Now,  we  submit,  are  the  minds  of  teacher  and 
scholars  in  a  proper  frame  to  encounter  such  perplex- 
ing duties  as  will  most  likely  meet  them?  If  for  no 
other  purpose  than  merely  to  afford  time  for  a  few 
moments'  reflection,  and  opportunity  to  call  in  their 
thoughts,  and  to  place  them  on  the  duties  in  which 
they  are  about  to  engage,  it  would  be  desirable  to 
have  a  portion  of  time  set  apart  for  some  formal  open- 
ing exercises. 

Take  another  example.  The  teacher  enters  the 
room  quietly,  unobtrusively,  and  in  ample  time  to  take 
a  general  survey  of  persons  and  things  before  the  hour 


14  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

for  opening  the  school  arrives.  Presently  a  gentle, 
but  well-known  signal  is  heard,  and  all  are  quietly 
seated  in  their  proper  places.  A  moment  or  two  of 
silence  elapses,  during  which  time  all  are  listening  and 
expecting;  and  then  there  break  forth  from  thestand, 
in  subdued  but  earnest  tones,  the  blessed  words  well 
chosen  from  the  Bible.  The  teacher  reads,  but  his 
soul  is  full  of  the  inspiration  from  that  holy  book,  and 
he  bears  the  shafts  of  Divine  truth  to  the  hearts  and  con- 
sciences of  those  that  hear.  His  remarks  are  pointed, 
and  mostly  bearing  upon  the  duties  and  difficulties  of 
the  day.  But  hark !  a  hymn  of  praise  now  rises  from 
that  little  band,  and  echoes  from  the  hillside  and  the 
forest.  And  now  all  is  hushed  again,  save  one  earnest, 
pleading  voice  devoutly  imploring  Divine  favor.  The 
scene  closes,  and  the  sunbeams  of  joy  steal  in  uncon- 
sciously upon  those  confiding  hearts,  and  all  their  au- 
ger and  dark  suspicions,  if  they  entertained  any,  have 
melted  away  like  frost-work  before  the  sun,  under  the 
beam  of  Divine  Truth.  Now,  are  not  these  hearts, 
these  minds,  in  a  better  condition  for  study  and  recita- 
tion than  those  in  our  first  picture? 

There  may  be  those  in  the  school  who  would  affect 
indifference  to  these  things,  and  so  they  might,  were 
the  heavens  to  fall ;  but  that  affected  indifference 
would  not  screen  them  from  the  influences  thu3 
brought  to  bear  upon  them.  These  things  will  com- 
mend themselves  to  their  sober  judgments;  and  if 
consistently  and  persistently  prosecuted,  they  cau  not 
fail  to  produce  the  happiest  results.  But  it  is  not 
our  purpose  to  dictate.  We  only  wish  to  present 
the  case  fairly,  and  allow  teachers  to  chose  for  them- 
selves. To  this  end,  we  suggest  the  following  exer- 
cises, any  one  or  all  of  which  may,  as  shall  seem  best 


SCHOOL-ROOM   DUTIES.  15 

to   the  teacher,  be   adopted    as  appropriate  opening 
exercises. 

1.  Reading  the  Scriptures. — The  reasons  for  this  exer- 
cise may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows: 

1.  The  children  need  moral  and  religious  instruction 
as  we  have  shown,  and  as  everybody  admits.  This  is 
a  most  favorable  time,  when  their  minds  are  clear  and 
vigorous  to  apprehend  those  truths. 

2.  It  offers  the  best  possible  opportunity  to  make 
impressions.  The  words  of  inspiration  have  more 
force  than  any  others,  simply  because  they  are  in- 
spired. No  mere  human  words  or  composition  can 
have  the  effect  that  these  have,  when  read  and  felt  by 
the  teacher  himself. 

3.  It  prepares  the  way  for  successful  study  and  in- 
struction in  other  departments.  It  opens  the  heart 
and  the  mind  to  receive  and  impart  the  truth,  which 
will  grow  all  the  better  for  being  watered  thus  daily 
by  the  dews  of  Divine  Inspiration. 

4.  It  offers  the  very  best  opportunity  to  smite  dowm 
some  of  those  vicious  habits  that  may  be  making  in- 
roads upon  the  school.  It  would  not  be  wise,  perhaps, 
to  take  special  pains  to  make  it  bear  upon  these  points ; 
but  the  silent  influence  of  the  Word  itself  will  prove 
sufficient,  in  most  cases,  to  work  the  reform. 

The  manner  of  conducting  this  part  of  the  opening 
exercises,  will  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher, 
with  these  simple  suggestions,  that  while  some  would 
succeed  best  with  one  plan,  others  might  adopt  a  dif- 
ferent one  and  succeed  equally  as  well.  I  have  known 
most  charming  results  produced  in  primary  and  secon- 
dary schools,  by  the  whole  school's  repeating  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  concert.  The  same  may  be  done  with  portions 
of  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  selections  from 


10  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING 

the  Psalms.  Then  again,  I  have  seen  a  whole  school, 
teacher  and  all,  affected  even  to  tears,  by  a  careful  and 
earnest  reading,  explanation  and  application  of  some  of 
the  most  interesting  portions  of  holy  writ.  The  historic 
parts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament  are  suitable. 
Others  again  I  have  known  to  succeed  best  by  joining 
with  some  or  all  of  their  pupils  in  reading.  But  what- 
ever may  be  the  form,  children  should  be  taught  to 
regard  the  reading  of  the  Bible  with  more  interest  and 
earnest  attention  than  they  do  other  books.  Other- 
wise there  is  great  danger  of  their  coming  to  regard  it, 
by  and  by,  of  no  greater  value.  It  may  become  unto 
them  "  a  savor  of  life  unto  life,  or  of  death  unto 
death."  It  is  a  sharp,  two-edged  sword  for  good  or 
ill.  It  is  an  educational  instrumentality,  of  such  force 
that  no  teacher  can  afford  to  do  without  it ;  and  it  is 
to  be  devoutly  hoped  that  the  time  is  past  when  its 
use  will  be  objected  to.  It  is  suitable  for  all  conditions 
of  the  human  race,  but  is  used  to  greatest  advantage 
when  the  passages  are  carefully  and  wisely  selected 
for  the  occasion.  It  then  acts  like  a  charm  upon  the 
heart.  There  are  storms  of  troubled  passions  there. 
But  Christ's  words,  "Peace,  be  still!"  that  echoed 
from  wave  to  wave  over  the  troubled  waters  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  were  scarcely  more  potent  to  produce  a 
calm  than  these  passages  will  become  when  properly 
selected, and  read  with  the  right  spirit. 

2.  Singing  is  an  exercise,  at  once,  so  appropriate 
and  so  common,  that  it  needs  no  argument  to  recom- 
mend it.  There  is  scarcely  any  excuse  for  not  prac- 
ticing it  in  school  ;  for  if  the  teacher  can  not  sttig, 
some  or  perhaps  all  the  pupils  can,  and  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  grant  them  permission,  and  the  thing 
is  done ;  perhaps  not  in  the  most  approved  style,  but 


SCHOOL-ROOM   DUTIES.  17 

time  and  practice  will  improve  it.  Of  course,  it  need 
not  be  confined  to  the  opening  exercises.  It  may 
mingle  with  all  others.  It  will  gladden  and  enliven 
all.  All  know  the  magic  power  of  music  to  subdue  the 
passions,  to  cultivate  the  voice,  and  to  refine  the  feel- 
ings. Let  its  sweet  strains,  therefore,  mingle  freely  in 
all  the  exercises  of  the  schoolroom.  For  the  opening 
exercises,  such  selections  should  he  made  as  shall  com- 
port with  the  occasion,  and  should  be  so  arranged,  if 
possible,  as  to  allow  all  to  participate. 

There  is  one  particular  mode  of  singing,  fast  com- 
ing into  use  in  the  schools,  which  seems  to  possess 
merits  for  opening  exercises,  surpassing  all  others, 
viz. :  the  chant.  It  does  seem  that  nothing  can  be 
more  appropriate  than  this,  when  the  whole  school 
can  unite  in  chanting  the  praises  of  God,  morning 
and  evening,  for  what  we  have  said  of  opening  exer- 
cises is  mainly  true  of  the  closing. 

3.  Prayer.  After  what  has  been  said  of  reading 
the  Scriptures,  and  singing  etc.,  the  arguments  in 
favor  of  prayer  or  some  form  of  devotion  might  be 
inferred.  It  is  the  crowning  excellence  of  all  the  rest, 
as  it  is  a  virtual  acknowledgement  of  allegiance  to 
God,  and  of  dependence  upon  him.  It  more  than  all 
others,  will  show  the  teacher  to  be  deeply  in  earnest. 
Of  course,  it  presupposes  that  every  teacher  should  be 
a  good  man  ;  for  who  else  should  teach  ?  Not  the 
bad  man  surely  !  And  there  are  but  these  two  classes. 
Therefore  the  argument  runs  thus.  All  good  men 
pray ;  none  but  good  men  should  teach ;  therefore 
teachers  should  pray. 

But  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  proscribe  those  who  do 
not;  for  we  believe  that  many  excellent  teachers  do 
not  presume  to  pray,  for  conscience'  sake,  or  because 
2 


18  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

they  do  not  make  a  public  profession  of  religion. 
I  honor  and  respect  such;  but  I  can  not  avoid  the 
conviction  that  their  excellencies  would  be  very  much 
enhanced,  could  they  consistently  add  this  other  grace 
also.  It  would  sanctify  and  intensify  every  other 
power.  And  it  would  seem,  on  a  careful  examination, 
that  if  there  is  any  one  duty  in  all  the  wide  range  of 
human  duties  that  demands  prayer,  it  is  that  of  teach- 
ing. If  there  is  one  position  in  life  in  which  a  man 
needs  Divine  guidance,  that  position  is  the  one  in 
which  the  training  of  human  beings  is  concerned. 
Add  to  this  the  moral  effects  of  prayer  upon  both 
pupil  and  teacher,  and  its  claims  are  set  beyond  a 
shadow  of  a  doubt. 

Now,  if  this  form  of  opening  exercises  be  objected 
to  by  any  on  the  plea  of  want  of  time,  let  such  be 
answered  as  follows  :  That  if  these  things  are  of  the 
importance  claimed  for  them,  then  they  have  as  much 
claim  upon  the  time  of  the  school-roomas  any  others; 
and  it  would  be  just  as  unreasonable  to  quibble  about 
the  time  devoted  to  recitation  in  Grammar  or  Arith- 
metic, as  about  this.  And  when  it  is  considered  how 
much  these  exercises  really  add  to  the  sum  total  of 
education,  not  only  by  preparing  the  minds  and  hearts 
of  pupils,  etc.,  but  in  actual  instruction  in  matters  of 
the  most  vital  importance,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that 
so  far  from  being  any  loss  of  time,  it  is  actually  time 
saved.  u  To  study  well  is  to  have  prayed  well,"  was 
a  maxim  of  one  of  the  greatest  students  and  reform- 
ers the  world  ever  knew;  and  it  is  not  without  its 
application  here.  But  the  time  thus  employed  need 
not  occupy  more  than  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  at  the 
most,  and  often  it  can  be  brought  within  the  compass 
of  seven  or  eight. 


SCHOOL-BOOM   DUTIES.  19 

Sec.  2 — Organization. — The  organization  of  schools 
is  of  so  much  importance,  that  its  claims  to  a  separate 
hearing  can  not  be  set  aside  without  very  much  im- 
pairing the  completeness  of  the  plan  we  have  marked 
out.  The  efficiency  and  success  of  the  school  depend 
so  essentially  upon  a  thorough  and  systematic  organ- 
ization, that  teachers  should  study  this  subject  with  as 
much  care  as  they  do  any  other,  relating  to  the  school. 

At  the  commencement  of  a  term  of  school,  the  great 
anxiety  of  the  teacher  seems  to  be,  to  begin  the  hear- 
ing of  classes;  but  it  will  be  found  that  time  may  be 
saved,  as  well  as  perplexity  avoided,  by  a  little  care 
and  attention  at  the  outset.  A  week,  or  even  ten  days 
may  be  spent  to  great  advantage  in  organizing  and 
trying  the  machinery,  before  starting  off  for  the  term, 
especially  if  the  school  be  a  new  one.  This  will  be 
found  to  be  much  better  than  to  commence  the  first 
or  second  day  with  an  imperfect  organization,  only  to 
run  into  difficulty,  and  expose  the  teacher  and  pupils 
to  the  mortification  of  a  reorganization  and  perhaps 
a  failure.  The  examinations  and  other  general  exer- 
cises which  will  be  described  by-and-by,  will  afford 
ample  employment  for  both  teacher  and  pupil  until 
the  regular  exercises  begin. 

Another  reason  why  teachers  should  not  be  hasty  in 
completing  the  organization  of  their  schools,  especially 
if  they  are  unacquainted  with  their  pupils,  is  found  in 
a  want  of  a  mutual  understanding  between  the  parties. 
Teachers  need  time  to  observe  and  study  the  capacity, 
advancement  and  natural  inclinations  and  dispositions 
of  their  pupils;  and  they,  in  turn,  stand  equally  in 
need  of  time  to  make  a  similar  acquaintance.  The 
exercises  about  to  be  recommend^i^ferd-tfk^e  oppor- 
tunities in  due  proportion. 


20  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

I  have  sometimes  made  this  remark  to  teachers  that 
were  about  going  out,  perhaps  for  the  first  time,  to 
engage  their  schools ;  and  the  recommendation  may 
cot  be  inappropriate  here,  viz. :  that  if  they  can  spare 
the  time,  they  should  spend  at  least  a  week  in  visiting 
the  families  of  the  neighborhood  or  district,  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  acquainted  with  the  parents  and 
children,  and  with  the  influences  that  have  been,  and 
still  may  be  operating  upon  them ;  or  in  other  words, 
to  learn  their  antecedents  ;  for  no  teacher  is  prepared 
to  give  direction  and  instruction  to  a  child  until  he 
knows  something  of  its  capacity  and  antecedents.  In 
the  ordinary  way  of  organizing,  he  is  left  without  any 
means  of  knowing,  except  that  which  is  afforded  by  a 
very  imperfect  acquaintance,  acquired  in  the  ordinary 
recitation. 

Let  him  not  go  on  these  visitations,  however,  as  a 
pedagogue,  or  as  one  whose  special  business  it  is  to 
instruct;  or  he  may  not  find  those  who  are  willing  to 
learn  from  so  green  a  disciple.  Let  him  not  go  to 
lecture  the  parents  upon  their  duties,  etc.,  and  to 
frighten  the  children  and  old  ladies  with  his  immense 
learning ;  or  he  may  breed  contempt  in  the  minds  of 
those  who  are  as  wise  as  himself.  But  let  him  go, 
rather,  as  a  friend  to  converse  and  counsel  with,  and 
receive  instruction  from  them,  in  reference  to  their 
labors,  daily  duties,  habits  and  wishes;  and  he  will 
acquire  more  valuable  information  in  a  half-day's 
friendly  intercourse,  than  he  would  in  a  whole  week's 
recitation,  simply  because  he  then  comes  in  direct 
contact  with  the  real  boys  and  girls,  which  is  not 
always  the  case  at  school.  He  may  thereby  avoid 
errors,  which  if  committed,  will  lead  to  the  defeat  of 
his   most   sanguine    purposes.      How   often    has    the 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  21 

teacher  had  reason  for  sorrow  and  repentance  for  his 
treatment  of  children,  after  learning  what  those  poor 
little  ones  have  to  contend  with  at  home!  Teacher, 
look  well  to  your  children's  homes,  if  you  would 
educate  them. 

~  Again :  a  thorough  and  systematic  organization  of 
the  school,  before  starting  off,  will  do  much  to  con 
vince  the  pupils,  both  of  the  importance  of  their  duties 
and  of  the  ability  of  the  teacher  to  conduct  them.  A 
few  master-strokes  here  (I  do  not  mean  strokes  from 
the  master)  will  give  him  a  greater  ascendency  over  his 
pupils,  than  any  or  all  the  other  kinds  of  strokes  he 
may  employ  subsequently.  Whereas,  a  few  mistakes 
will  have  a  tendency  to  sink  him  correspondingly  low 
in  their  estimation. 

Many  teachers  fail  from  this  cause.  They  come 
before  the  school,  perhaps  for  the  first  time  in  their 
lives,  without  any  definite  or  well  digested  plan.  The 
consequence  is,  they  are  embarrassed.  They  hesitate 
and  halt  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  ;  and  how- 
ever wise  they  may  pretend  to  be,  and  however 
earnestly  they  may  labor,  nothing  will  conceal  from 
the  lynx-eyed  children  (and  they  read  motives  by 
intuition)  the  lamentable  deficiency,  or  save  him  from 
exposure.  He  may  struggle,  but  his  embarrassment 
will  increase  ;  and  at  every  successive  blunder,  he  will 
sink  lower  and  lower  in  their  estimation,  and  deeper 
and  deeper  into  difficulty,  until  his  resurrection  be- 
comes impossible. 

But  take#  an  example  of  a  teacher  well  versed  in 
didactics;  one  who  has  wisdom  and  a  plan,  and  dis- 
patch to  execute  it.  He  comes  before  his  school, 
without  ostentation  or  embarrassment.  He  knows 
what  is  the  first  thing  to  be  done,  and  the  second, 


22  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

and  the  third,  and  so  on.  He  disposes  of  them  in  their 
proper  order,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  convince  his 
pupils  that  "  knowledge  is  indeed  power."  The  whole 
is  completed  with  that  eminent  ability  which  proves 
him  to  be  a  master  workman.  And  what  is  the  effect 
upon  the  pupils  ?  They  yield  their  willing  and  un- 
qualified submission ;  and  the  teacher  rises,  at  each 
successive  step,  until  he  stands  before  them  an  em- 
bodiment of  power.  Such  a  teacher  can  teach.  Such 
also  is  the  effect  of  system,  or  a  studied  plan  of  opera- 
tion. This  alone  is  argument  sufficient  to  convince 
any  one,  that  there  is  something  more  than  mere 
familiarity  with  the  branches  of  study  necessary  to 
secure  success  in  teaching.  ITo  amount  of  mere  scien  - 
tific  acquirements  can  compensate  for  this  deficiency 
in  professional  skill.  This  must  be  learned  some- 
where, either  before  or  after  the  teacher  commences 
his  duties.  It  were  better  far  to  learn  it  before,  since 
this  may  save  him  from  a  world  of  mortification  and 
perhaps  failure,  and  his  pupils  from  a  still  worse 
calamity. 

The  opening  exercises  disposed  of  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  described  under  that  topic,  the  school 
now  is  supposed  to  be  in  a  condition  to  favor  a  good, 
thorough  organization. 

There  is,  however,  one  thing  common  to  the  rural 
districts,  which  usually  operates  against  such  an  organ- 
ization. It  is  the  want  of  a  full  attendance  of  the 
pupils,  the  first  few  days  of  school.  But  the  plan 
proposed  will,  in  some  measure,  meet  tr^tt  difficulty 
and  greatly  relieve  it ;  since  it  delays  the  complete 
organization  until  a  greater  number  can  be  present.  It 
is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  parents  can  not  see 
the  utter  hopelessness  of  a  respectable  organization, 


SCHOOL-ROOM   DUTIES.  23 

where  the  children  are  delayed  in  their  attendance 
until  the  second  or  third  week  of  school.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  therefore,  that  the  children  be 
present  on  the  very  first  opening  of  the  school.  Par- 
ents ought  to  know,  and  feel  too,  that  every  hour 
any  scholar  delays  in  entering  the  school,  is  not  only 
so  much  time  lost,  and  worse  than  lost  to  him,  but 
that  he  actually  inflicts  a  wound  upon  the  school,  in 
interrupting  and  delaying  its  organization. 

What,  for  instance,  would  be  thought  of  the  wisdom 
of  a  neighborhood  that  had  adopted  as  one  of  its  reg- 
ulations, that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  commence 
the  spring  plowing  until  every  other  one  was  willing 
and  ready  to  commence  also ;  and  that  if  some  few  of 
them  had  taken  advantage  of  the  pleasant  weather, 
and  had  actually  done  a  part  of  their  work,  that  they, 
forsooth,  because  their  lazy  neighbors  were  not  ready, 
must  unplow  or  unsow  that  which  their  industry 
secured?  And  yet  this  policy  resembles,  in  no  slight 
degree,  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  seuding  pupils  to 
school  after  the  school  is  organized,  and  compelling 
the  reorganization  to  accommodate  them. 

Or  what  would  be  thought  of  the  wisdom  of  that 
farmer,  for  instance,  who  was  about  sowing  his  wheat, 
but,  forsooth,  because  he  had  not  seed  enough  pre- 
pared when  the  time  came  for  sowing,  instead  of  pre- 
paring more,  should  go  on  and  sow  what  he  had,  over 
the  whole  field;  and  then  wait  a  week  or  twro,  until 
the  grain  sown  had  got  fairly  growing,  and  then 
sow  another  sowing  and  harrow  it  in,  right  among  the 
tender  shoots  of  the  growing  grain  ;  and  then  again, 
along  in  May  of  the  next  year,  when  the  crop  began 
to  spring,  he  should  discover  that  it  was  not  quite 
right  yet,  and  should  sow  the  residue  of  his  grain,  and 


24  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

harrow  it  in  as  before,  right  among  the  growing  grain  ? 
Why,  such  a  man  would  be  thought  a  fit  subject  for 
an  insane  asylum,  and  so  it  would  seem ;  but  a  policy 
very  much  like  this  is  practiced  in  nearly  all  our 
country  schools.  What  kind  of  a  crop  wrould  that 
man  reap,  if  he  reaped  any  at  all  ?  It  would  resemble 
very  much  the  intellectual  and  moral  harvests  that  are 
too  frequently  gathered  in  many  of  our  schools.  That 
growing  grain  thus  mutilated  by  repeated  additions, 
is  but  too  apt  a  type  of  many  of  our  schools,  dis- 
turbed and  rent  asunder  by  a  fresh  arrival  of  pupils 
every  few  weeks.  But  until  parents  can  see  this  evil 
in  its  true  light,  it  were  better  perhaps  to  endure  it 
for  a  time,  and  provide  for  its  removal  as  soon  as 
possible. 

One  of  the  first  steps  in  the  organization  of  the 
school,  is  the  enrollment  and  seating  of  pupils.  This, 
though  apparently  a  small  matter,  offers  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  exhibit  that  skill  and 
wisdom  which  are  to  give  him  command  over  his 
pupils.  There  is  a  right  way  and  a. wrong  way  in 
everything,  and  the  principle  descends  even  to  this 
small  duty.  If  the  teacher  do  those  duties  well,  the 
pupils  will  give  him  credit  for  it ;  if  he  do  them  ill, 
they  will  place  it  on  the  debit  side,  and  woe  be  to  that 
teacher,  if,  when  the  balance  is  struck,  the  debit  should 
exceed  the  credit. 

It  is  not  our  purpose,  however,  to  recommend  any 
particular  method  of  doing  this  duty,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  others.  The  great  diversity  of  the  form  and 
manner  of  seating  in  school-rooms,  and  other  circum- 
stances, would  forbid  this.  But  we  shall  indicate  a 
few  plans  which  will,  most  likely,  prove  suggestive  to 
teachers. 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  25 

1.  The  teacher  needs  a  general  roll,  for  reference 
and  other  purposes,  and  it  should  be  arranged  in 
alphabetic  order.  He  therefore  makes  this  announce- 
ment to  the  school,  explains  its  use,  and  says,  "All 
whose  names  (meaning  the  family  name)  begin  with 
A,  will  please  to  arise."  As  fast  as  their  names  are 
called  and  recorded,  they  take  their  seats.  The  letter 
B  is  called  in  a  similar  manner,  and  so  on  through  all 
the  letters. 

This  exercise  also  offers  a  fine  opportunity  for  the 
teachers  to  learn  the  names  of  his  pupils — a  matter  of 
no  trifling  importance — to  make  general  remarks,  and 
to  become  somewhat  acquainted.  A  similar  course 
might  be  pursued  in  forming  class  rolls  also.  This 
matter  well  done,  will  impress  the  school  with  the 
idea  that  order  prevails  every-where;  that  it  is  one  of 
the  first  and  firmest  laws  of  nature;  and  its  appear- 
ance here  will  be  greeted  with  respect,  to  say  the  least. 

2.  The  next  step,  perhaps,  is  seating  the  pupils.  In 
this  matter  the  teacher  will  have  to  be  governed  some- 
what by  the  form  and  size  of  the  room,  and  the  posi- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  seats.  In  most  instances 
he  will  find  it  to  result  in  the  greatest  convenience,  to 
seat  the  larger  pupils  in  one  part  of  the  room,  and  the 
smaller  ones  in  the  other,  placing  the  larger  ones  back, 
and  so  grading  the  school  forward  that  the  smaller 
ones  shall  occupy  the  seats  nearest  the  teacher's  desk. 
This  will  give  the  schdol  an  orderly  appearance.  No 
one  likes  to  see  a  large  boy  and  a  very  small  one 
occupying  the  same  seat.  It  is  out  of  proportion  and 
disorderly.  It  resembles  too  much  a  team  composed 
of  one  very  large  horse  and  a  very  small  one,  or  a 
mule   harnessed  with   an    elephant.      The   objection, 

that  this  plan  would    prevent  children  who  wish  to 
3 


26 


THE    ART    OF    TEACHING 


study  together,  or  who  wish  to  be  together  for  any 
other  purpose,  is  not  a  valid  one.  Since  to  prevent 
this  is  the  very  thing  aimed  at,  it  is  the  chief  excel- 
lency of  the  measure.  Children  should  not  be  per- 
mitted, as  a  general  thing,  to  assist  each  other  in  their 
lessons,  but  should  be  taught  to  rely  upon  their  own 
individual  exertions,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  re- 
mark more  at  length  when  we  come  to  notice  the  topic 
of  study.  The  practice  of  studying  together,  and 
assisting  and  prompting  each  other,  is  ruining  thou- 
sands of  scholars  in  our  schools.  It  destroys  that  self- 
reliance  and  independence  so  necessary  to  make  a  man. 

Again :  this  plan  would  prevent  any  noise  and  mis- 
chief, which  are  sure  to  be  the  result  when  the  practice 
is  allowred  to  any  extent.  It  will  be  fouud  also  where 
children  are  allowed  to  select  their  own  seats,  without 
any  general  system,  that  if  there  happen  to  be  two  or 
three  mischievous  ones  (and  such  cases,  I  believe,  are 
not  unsupposable),  they  will  be  sure  to  get  together 
"  to  have  a  good  time."  Now  all  this  may  be  prevent- 
ed. All  these  evil  combinations  may  be  broken  up, 
by  a  judicious  arrangement;  and  the  teacher  should 
have  the  entire  management  of  the  seating  of  the 
pupils  in  the  school.  The  effect  of  this  arrangement 
may  easily  be  anticipated.  The  pupils  will  see,  at 
once,  the  propriety  of  it,  and  will  say  within  them- 
selves, if  not  audibly,  "  well,  I  think  there  is  going  to 
be  something  done  this  term.''  "  I  wonder  if  it  would 
not  be  best  for  me  to  fall  right  in  ranks,  and  assist  in 
carrying  out  these  plans  ? "  "I  see  plainly  that  the  . 
teacher  knows  something,  and  that  mischief  and  idle- 
ness will  not  pay,  this  term."  Such  will  be  the  mental 
cogitations  of  the  pupils. 

The  matters  of  enrollment  and  seating   disposed  of,* 


SCHOOL-ROOM   DUTIES.  27 

the  next  item  of  importance  will  be  the  examination 
and  classification  of  the  pupils.  These  will  constitute 
the  great  burden  of  the  organization.  Too  much  pains, 
therefore,  can  not  be  taken  with  them.  It  requires  the 
greatest  care  and  discrimination,  combined  with  the 
most  unflinching  integrity,  to  perform  this  duty  well 
A  hundred  and  one  reasons  will  perhaps  be  offered, 
both  by  child  and  parent,  showing  why  "  so  and  so" 
should  be  put  into  this  class  or  that;  all  of  which  are 
to  be  heard  and  disposed  of.  And,  while  I  would  not 
encourage  obstinacy  or  self-conceit  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  yet  I  would  have  him  distinctly  to  under- 
stand, that  it  is  his  exclusive  prerogative,  to  determine 
the  position,  in  classes,  of  every  scholar  in  school.  He 
should  not  assert  this  prerogative,  however,  without 
duly  considering  all  the  circumstances,  cautiously  con- 
sulting the  wishes  of  all  parties,  and  receiving  all  the 
instruction  possible  from  whatever  source.  The  teach- 
er is  supposed  to  know  better  than  any  one  else,  what 
will  be  the  best  for  the  child  in  school.  If  he  does 
not,  he  ought  not  to  teach. 

Again :  some  one  must  have  the  general  direction 
of  affairs.  If  that  person  is  not  the  teacher,  pray, 
who  should  it  be  ?  What  would  be  the  condition  of 
the  school,  for  instance,  provided  every  little  Master 
or  Miss,  every  fond  mother  or  doting  father — to  say 
nothing  about  the  grandmas,  aunts,  and  other  func- 
tionaries interested — should  "  have  a  say  "  in  the 
arrangement  of  affairs  at  school?  No  two  opinions 
would  agree,  and  anarchy  and  confusion  would  reign. 
But  in  rendering  these  decisions,  examining  the 
pupils  and  arranging  the  classes,  respect  should  be 
bad  to  the  following  points: 
# 


28  THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 

1st.  To  give  the  pupil  credit  for  what  he  thinks  he 
knows,  as  far  as  possible. 

2d.  To  give  him  credit  for  no  more  than  he  knows, 
proved  upon  careful  examination. 

3d.  To  reserve  the  privilege  of  correcting  any  false 
notions  in  reference  either  to  capacity  or  acquire- 
ments, and  the  right  to  determine  his  standing  and 
position   in    class. 

This  course  will  most  likely  disclose  the  following 
facts:  that  some  scholars  place  too  high  an  estimate 
upon  their  abilities  ;  that  others,  again,  place  that  esti- 
mate too  low ;  and  still  another  class  that  need  spe- 
cial attention,  viz.,  those  who,through  pure  indolence, 
or  a  desire  at  least  to  escape  from  hard  labor,  will 
select  classes  and  studies  far  below  their  abilities. 
Such  need  a  special  spur. 

The  main  point  to  be  observed  is,  so  to  dispose  of 
every  member  of  the  school,  that  as  few  changes  as 
possible  will  be  required  after  the  school  once  com- 
mences in  earnest;  for  all  who  have  had  any  experi- 
ence in  these  matters,  know  how  demoralizing  it  is  to 
all  concerned,  to  be  obliged  to  rip  up  the  organization 
of  classes,  and  to  make  changes,  or  to  form  new  ones. 
To  those  pupils  who  have  to  be  turned  back  in  their 
studies,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  severe  disappointment 
and  discouragement.  Their  aspirations  and  anticipa- 
tions have  been  raised  by  an  unwise  step,  only  to  be 
dashed  to  the  ground  ;  and  in  too  many  instances,  all 
hope  perishes,  and  with  it,  the  desire  for  study.  Now 
a  teacher  has  no  right  to  treat  a  pupil  in  this  manner. 
Hence  the  greater  necessity  for  knowledge  upon  these 
points.  And  then  again,  to  those  who  have  to  be  set 
forward,  the  evils  are  sometimes  scarcely  less  ruinous. 


CI 


SCHOOL-ROOM   DUTIES.  29 

Their  pride  and  self-conceit,  are  often  pampered,  and 
indolence  and  superficial  habits  take  the  place  of  hon- 
est industry  and  frugality. 

In  conclusion  upon  this  topic,  it  is  but  justice  to  re- 
mark, that  most  of  the  evils  here  pointed  out,  are 
amply  provided  for,  and  the  recommendations  happily 
anticipated  in  our  best  organized  union  or  graded 
schools.  But  the  object  of  this  work  is,  if  possible, 
to  bring  the  common  district  school  up  to  a  level  with 
the  union  or  graded  school. 

The  examination  of  pupils  and  the  formation  of 
lasses  completed,  the  scholars  will  begin  to  cast  about 
them  for  some  employment.  This  should  be  furnished 
thern  in  exact  measure.  No  time  should  be  lost  by 
the  teacher,  in  furnishing  them  with  an  Order  of  Exer- 
ses.  Much  valuable  time  is  lost,  and  much  mischief 
concocted,  from  not  providing  for  this  want,  from  the 
beginning.  Pupils  may  not  really  desire  to  be  negli- 
gent or  vicious ;  indeed,  very  few,  if  any,  do ;  but  in 
consequence  of  their  not  knowing  exactly  what  to  do, 
and,  in  some  instances,  not  exactly  caring  about  doing 
any  thing,  or  not  feeling  the  special  necessity  of  labor, 
their  duties  are  therefore  neglected.  But  if  a  general 
order  of  exercises,  stating  the  exact  amount  of  labor, 
and  the  precise  time  of  every  recitation,  and  of  every 
other  duty,  were  placed  in  such  a  position  that  every 
pupil  might  see  it,  and  learn  just  wThat  to  do;  and 
when  to  do  this,  and  when  to  do  that,  these  tempta- 
tions wTould  be,  to  a  great  extent,  removed.  There 
would  be  less  excuse  for  ill -prepared  lessons ;  for  the 
lessons  and  time  to  prepare  them,  would  all  be  meas- 
ured and  balanced.  The  scholars  have  a  right  to 
know  this  arrangement ;  and  it  will  do  more  to  form 
and  strengthen  the  habits  of  regularity  and  industry, 


30  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

than  any  amount  of  lecturing  and  scolding  that  may 
be  bestowed  upon  them;  and  then  the  very  habits 
formed  here,  are  the-  ones  that  will  follow  them  into 
the  workshops,  on  the  farm,  into  the  office,  counting- 
room,  pulpit,  bar  or  school-house.  They  are  the  ones 
that  will  render  them  successful  or  unsuccessful 
throughout  an  eventful  career  of  life.  The  fact  is,  a 
great  many  of  the  evils  we  complain  of  most  bitterly, 
in  the  school,  are  the  results  of  some  such  mistakes, 
in  not  providing  the  scholars  with  the  means  for  pro- 
secuting these  duties. 

Another  recommendation  equally  worthy  of  adop- 
tion, at  least  by  all  the  larger  members  of  the  school, 
is  the  construction  of  a  separate  order  for  individual 
use,  in  which  every  hour  and  half-hour  of  the  day, 
shall  be  provided  for.  Let  one  be  written  out  by  each 
individual  pupil ;  to  meet  his  particular  case;  aud,  if 
need  be,  let  it  be  revised  by  the  teacher,  and  compared 
with  others  of  similar  character.  This  will  cut  off 
the  last  possible  excuse  for  neglect  of  duty,  and  will 
have  a  tendency  to  make  orderly  and  successful  men 
and  women,  in  whatever  department  of  life  they  may 
chance  to  labor.  But  this  plan  will  be  described  more 
fully,  under  the  head  of  "  Special  Order  of  Daily 
Duties." 

Section  3 — Assigning  Lessons. — There  is  still  an- 
other duty  which  may  be  regarded  as  preliminary, 
though  not  in  the  sense  in  which  the  organization  and 
opening  exercises  are.  The  first,  it  will  be  observed, 
is  a  preliminary  which,  if  once  disposed  of  properly, 
does  not  need  repeating;  the  second  is  periodical, 
occurring  each  morning;  but  the  third,  or  Assigning 
Lessons,  is  a  duty  that  may  occur  every  half-hour  or 
less  often ;  it  is  preliminary  or  preparatory  to  study 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  31 

and  recitation,  and  hence  is  not  without  its  im- 
portance. 

It  is  laid  down  as  a  fundamental  principle,  in  an- 
other part  of  this  work,  that  the  scholars  will  be  gov- 
erned in  their  estimate,  and  consequent  discharge  of 
duty,  by  the  estimation  in  wThich  these  duties  are  held 
by  the  teacher  himself.  If,  therefore,  carelessness  and 
indifference  are  manifested  by  the  teacher  in  assign- 
ing lessons,  the  same  disposition  will  most  likely  be 
manifested  by  the  pupils  when  preparing  and  reciting 
those  lessons.  For  instance  :  after  a  hurried  recitation 
in  which,  perhaps,  not  more  than  one  half  or  two 
thirds  of  the  previous  lesson  has  been  recited,  the 
teacher  says — hastily  turning  the  leaf  of  the  book 
and  glancing  hurriedly  at  the  contents,  for  the  bell 
has  rung,  and, being  a  little  behind,  the  next  recitation 
is  pressing  hard  upon  him — "Here  !  your  lesson  com- 
mences somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  the or 

page,  and  may  extend — let  me  see — how  far  can 

you  go?"  (to  which  not  very  satisfactory  or  unan- 
imous answers  are  given)  well,  go  as  far  as  you  can.  " 
u  .Next  class!"  and  the  books  are  hastily  closed  and 
the  pupils  hurry  to  their  seats,  and  make  busy  prepa- 
rations  to do  nothing,  absolutely   nothing!  for 

the  teacher  most  emphatically  announced  to  them 
that  task,  by  his  failing  to  circumscribe  the  limits  of 
their  work.  He  said  in  the  most  forcible  manner  : 
14  Do  just  as  you  please ; "  and  they  may  please  to  do 
nothing. 

Now  what  kind  of  a  recitation  will  that  teacher  meet 
when  he  next  calls  the  class  ?  He  ought  not  to  expect 
any  thing  more  or  better  than  he  gave ;  and  since  he 
gave  nothing,  he  should  expert  nothing.  If  he  be 
thus  modest  in  his  expectations,  he  may  not  be  disap- 


32  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

pointed  ;  but  he  is  apt  to  expect  more.  The  recitation 
is  about  to  commence.  One  says,  "  Why,  /  thought 
the  lesson  commenced  here;"  another  says,  "No, 
there,"  a  third,  "  I  don't  know  where  ; "  but  a  fourth, 
with  more  roguery  than  honesty  may  say,  "  I  didn't 
know  there  was  any ; "  and  so  it  goes.  One  is  called 
upon  to  recite.  The  question  is  asked,  but  the  answer 
comes  complainingly :  "  I  didn't  study  that."  "How 
perplexing !  "  (fortunate  if  nothing  worse  escape  him,) 
sighs  the  poor  teacher,  chafed  and  worried  by  a  suc- 
cession of  such  difficulties.  Well,  whose  fault  is  it, 
teacher  ?  Who  set  the  example  ?  If  you  want  your 
pupils  to  be  precise,  prompt  and  faithful,  you  must  be 
so  yourself.  If  you  would  have  them  do  the  work, 
you  must  mark  it  out  for  them. 

What  would  you  think  of  a  carpenter,  for  instance, 
who  is  about  erecting  a  house,  if  he  should  go  on 
the  ground  with  a  score  of  green  hands,  and  commence 
in  this  wise,  "  Here,  boys,  are  the  timbers.  Well,  I 
want  you  to  bore  the  holes,  make  the  mortises,  fit  the 
tenons,  square  the  beams,  trim  the  braces  and  ties, 
make  the  doors  and  windows,  and  in  fact  do  as  well  as 
you  can ;  now  go  to  work."  And  they  go  to  work 
"  with  a  vengeance,"  every  one  doing  what  he  thinks 
best  (?)  The  frame  is  erected — and  such  a  frame! 
What  would  you  give,  gentle  readers,  to  see  that  house? 
I  venture  to  say  you  would  give  one  groan  at  least.  It 
might  be  no  idolatry  to  fall  down  (if  it  didn't  fall  first) 
and  worship  it;  for  it  would  not  have  its  likeness 
oither  on  the  earth,  under  the  earth,  in  the  sea  or  in 
the  heavens.  But  bad  as  it  is,  it  would  be  but  too 
correct  a  likeness  of  the  mental  and  moral  habitations 
that  are  sometimes  erected  in  our  school-houses.  The 
comparison  can  be  readily  carried  out. 


SCHOOL-ROOM   DUTIES.  33 

Now,  in  such  a  case,  a  good  workman  would  take  a 
square  and  compasses,  and,  passing  carefully  from  tim- 
ber to  timber,  would  mark  off,  here  a  mortise,  there  a 
tenon,  here  a  brace,  there  a  tie,  here  a  door,  there  a 
window,  etc.,  until  all  is  completed ;  and  then  he 
might  say  with  some  propriety,  "  Here,  boys,  go  to 
work."  So  a  good  teacher  would  take  a  book  and 
pencil  in  hand,  and  calling  the  attention  of  the  class, 
would  carefully  mark  off  the  lesson.  He  would say,in 
the  first  place,  "  The  lesson  commences  precisely  with 

the article,  and  extends  to  the article;  and 

every  word  and  sentence  is  to  be  studied  and  recited." 
Hence  definiteness  as  to  place  and  extent  is  a  matter  first 
to  be  considered.  The  pupils  should  know  just  where 
a  lesson  commences  and  where  it  ends,  and  every 
thing  else  that  will  be  demanded  of  them.  This  may 
be  tested  by  actual  examination  by  the  teacher  before 
the  class  leaves  the  recitation  seat,  if  there  is  any  doubt 
about  it.  They  then  will  have  no  excuse  from  that 
quarter  for  neglect  of  duty.  It  brings  the  matter 
under  their  immediate  notice,  and  fastens  it  so  upon 
the  memory  that  there  will  be  no  escape  from  its 
claims. 

Again  :  care  should  be  taken  not  to  assign  too 
much  or  too  little.  The  tendencies  are  to  err  in  the 
first  extreme.  In  this  case  the  mind  soon  wearies  'of 
fruitless  endeavors  to  encompass  much,  and  the  result 
is  that  nothing  is  done  well;  superficial  habits  are 
formed.  The  effects  of  this  mania,  "  to  get  through 
books,"  are  very  discernible  in  all  departments  of 
business,  especially  in  the  western  country,  where  the 
evil  prevails  to  the  greatest  extent.  It  shows  itself  in 
fast  living,  in  overweening  desires,  in  hastening  to  be- 
come rich,  in  living  beyond  the  means,  and  often  in 


34  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

open  bankruptcy.  I  have  thought  also  that  I  could 
discover  the  results  of  too  long  lessons  given  in  school, 
on  some  of  our  western  farms,  where  an  attempt  is 
made  to  cultivate  200  or  300  acres  of  land,  with 
means  hardly  adequate  to  cultivate  50  well.  The 
results  are  broken-down  fences,  dilapidated  buildings, 
inadequate  cultivation,  poor  crops,  briers  in  the  fence 
corners,  and  a  general  appearance  of  slovenliness  per- 
vading every  thing;  while  in  New  England,  where,  to 
my  certain  knowledge,  the  lessons  given  in  school  are 
not  more  than  one-half  so  long,  the  farms  and  the 
way-side,  and  every  thing,  seems  to  wear  an  air  of 
neatness  and  finish,  which  have  been  the  subject  of 
just  praise  by  the  traveler.  May  we  not  seek  for  the 
cause  of  this  in  the  foregoing?  Indeed  I  think  we 
may  safely  conclude,  that  whatever  errors  or  excel- 
lencies we  behold  in  the  walks  of  society,  are  but  the 
reflections  of  the  school  and  the  family.  The  child's 
capacity  should  therefore  be  exactly  measured,  in  as- 
signing a  lesson,  and  just  enough  given  to  keep  his 
powers  in  active  exercise,  for  the  requisite  length  of 
time,  and  then  the  labor  should  be  remitted  or  changed. 
This,  it  is  true,  would  require  skill  and  wisdom  ;  but 
it  is  their  claims  we  are  trying  to  enforce. 

Again :  to  make  the  matter  sure,  there  should  be  a 
distinct  understanding,  that  no  lesson  is  to  be  assigned 
twice  for  any  cause,  save  the  most  unavoidable  acci- 
dents. One  of  the  prevailing  errors  in  the  present 
mode  of  teaching  is  the  one  of  allowing  the  pupil  tc 
have  two  or  three  trials  at  the  same  lesson.  They 
come  to  think,  by  and  by,  that  they  can  not  get  a 
lesson  the  first  time,  and  their  efforts  seldom  exceed 
their  expectations.  The  evil  is  brought  about  in  this 
way  :  teachers  give  too  long  lessons  in  the  first  place; 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  35 

in  the  second  place,  they  do  not  take  sufficient  pre- 
cautions to  secure  the  study  of  them  ;  and  in  the  third 
place,  if  the  lessons  are  imperfect,  as  they  most  surely 
will  be  under  these  circumstances,  they  are  assigned  a 
second,  third,  or  even  a  fourth  and  fifth  time,  before 
they  are  completed.  Now,  any  one  can  see  at  a 
glance,  that  this  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  bid  on 
laziness.  The  pupil  will  console  himself  with  reflec- 
tions like  the  following:  "  Well,  though  this  is  a 
pretty  hard  lesson,  yet  there  is  this  consolation,  that  if 
I  don't  complete  it  now,  I  shall  have  another  trial  or 
two."  "  The  master  will  be  easy  with  me,  and  what 
I  do  not  understand,  he  will  explain."  "  I  will  there- 
fore get  but  a  portion  of  it,  or  the  whole  imperfectly, 
and  complete  it  at  another  time." 

Now  any  one  can  see  where  this  would  lead ;  and  it 
would  be  safe  to  say  that  a  very  great  part  of  the  poor 
recitations,  as  well  as  of  poor  scholarship,  may  date 
existence  to  causes  like  these.  There  should  therefore 
be  a  distinct  understanding,  that  no  lesson  is  to  be  as- 
signed a  second  or  a  third  time,  and  that  if  a  lesson  is 
accidentally  or  carelessly  lost,  its  loss  falls  only  upon 
the  unfortunate  or  guilty  one.  (The  cases  that  might 
be  regarded  as  exceptional  will  be  noticed  in  another 
piace.)  This,  I  imagine,  will  do  more  than  almost 
any  one  thing,  to  correct  the  evil  habit  of  careless  and 
superficial  study. 

Another  matter  relating  to  preliminaries  deserves 
attention,  which,  perhaps,  will  be  more  clearly  under- 
stood by  first  showing  the  evils  to  be  removed,  and  the 
benefits  to  be  secured  by  its  adoption. 

In  almost  every  lesson,  there  are  some  interesting 
points  that  may  not  attract  the  attention  of  the 
learner,  unless  such   attention  is  particularly  called  to 


36  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

them.  They  exist  sometimes  in  a  kind  of  undefined 
state,  but  only  need  to  be  pointed  out,  not  explained, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  apprehended,  and  thus  be- 
come strong  incentives  to  study.  History  and  geogra- 
phy abound  in  such  matters,  and  no  branch  of  study 
is,  perhaps,  entirely  wanting  in  them.  Again  :  there 
are  also,  in  most  studies,  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
points  of  difficulty,  to  which  it  may  be  well  to  direct 
the  attention  of  the  learner,  especially  if  the  lesson  is 
a  new  one.  Pupils  are  not  unfrequently  brought  in 
contact  with  those  things  in  a  manner  calculated  rather 
to  discourage  them  than  to  excite  their  energies.  It 
would  not  be  wise,  therefore,  to  remove  them  entirely 
out  of  the  way,  but,  rather,  prepare  their  minds,  as 
far  as  possible,  to  encounter  them.  The  practice  of 
merely  defining  the  limits  of  a  lesson,  and  saying  to 
the  pupil, **  There,  now  study,"  is  too  much  like  taking 
him  up  to  the  border  of  a  seemingly  impenetrable 
forest,  through  which  he  is  required  to  pass,  and  say- 
ing to  him,  "There,  now  pass  through  the  best  way 
you  can."  Would  he  not  be  more  likely  to  accomplish 
this  feat,  more  to  his  own  pleasure  and  profit,  and  to 
the  satisfaction  of  all  parties,  were  the  teacher  to  give  * 
him  a  little  instruction,  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
"  points  of  the  compass,"  the  direction  to  go,  etc.,  and 
to  point  out  to  him  a  few  of  the  difficulties  he  will  be 
most  likely  to  encounter,  giving  him  directions  how 
to  avoid  them,  rather  than  allow  him  to  blunder 
through  without  such  aid? 

Would  he  not  be  better  prepared  to  meet  those 
difficulties,  and  to  enjoy  those  pleasures  also,  if  the 
teacher  should  say,  "  At  such  and  such  a  place,  you 
will  come  to  a  steep  mountain  ;  but  its  hight  has 
been  scaled,  and  you  can  ascend.     The  top  affords  you 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  37 

a  most  beautiful  prospect.  That  passed,  and  you 
descend  into  a  most  delightful  valley  covered  with  a 
carpet  of  the  richest  verdure  and  flowers.  You  will 
not  tarry  nor  rest  in  its  borders,  lest  night  overtake 
you.  Next  you  will  encounter  a  deep  and  rapid 
stream,  bounded  by  high  ledges  of  rocks,  and  flanked 
by  deep  ravines.  But  by  the  aid  of  some  hanging 
boughs*  that  nature  has  kindly  furnished  for  the 
traveler,  you  may  safely  swing  yourself  upon  a  plat- 
formf  on  the  opposite  side,  erected  for  your  accommo- 
dation, from  which  your  passage  will  be  easy.  You 
next  pass  into  a  beautiful  plain  that  ends  ere  long  in 
a  most  dismal  marsh.  Here  it  will  be  necessary  to 
exert  the  greatest  caution,  lest  you  plunge  into  some 
of  those  pools  of  water,  or  sink  into  some  of  those 
filthy  quagmires  that  abound  throughout  its  whole 
extent.  But  by  carefully  observing,  and  by  making 
good  use  of  that  light  J  you  hold  in  your  hand,  you  will 
discover  a  narrow,  graveled  walk  that  leads  to  the 
opposite  side,  where  your  journey  will  terminate." 

Now,  would  not  the  prospect  of  pleasure  and  of 
daring  adventure  animate  and  nerve  his  limbs  like 
steel  to  plunge  into  that  forest,  and  to  explore  its 
wonders  ?  So  in  reference  to  assigning  lessons.  The 
pupil  knows  but  little  of  the  difficulties,  dangers  and 
pleasures  of  the  way.  The  teacher  has  been  over  the 
ground  ;  and,  if  he  has  been  observing,  he  has  marked 
all  those  points,  and  by  pointing  them  out  to  the 
pupil,  he  prepares  him  also  to  encounter  them.  Or, 
to  refer  to  our  forest  again — which,  by  the  way,  is  a 
very  good  representation  of  a  difficult  lesson — let  the 
teacher  plant,  as  it  were,  a  light  at  some  distance  from 

*  Common  sense.  t  Definitions.  X  The  rule. 


38  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

the  border,  but  within  sight,  so  that  the  pupil's  eye 
may  catch  its  glimmering,  and  it  will  serve  as  a  mark 
to  guide  him  thither;  and  then  another  beyond,  and 
so  on,  each  one  affording  him  light  enough  to  carry 
him  to  the  next,  until  the  goal  is  reached.  This,  in 
effect,  will  be  following  the  annexed  direction,  viz., 
To  note  the  points  of  interest  and  difficulty,  and  give  some 
general  directions  how  to  treat  them. 

Again  :  pupils  are  sometimes  perplexed  to  know 
how,  or  in  what  manner  the  lesson  is  to  be  prepared 
and  recited,  and  the  result  may  be  a  failure  to  get  the 
lesson  in  the  manner  intended  by  the  teacher.  They 
may  succeed,  as  they  think,  but  when  they  come  to 
recite,  they  are  surprised, disappointed  and  chagrined, 
to  find  that  they  have  entirely  misapprehended  the 
nature  of  the  recitation.  Now,  it  is  their  right  and 
privilege  to  know  the  manner  of  recitation  before  they 
commence  the  study  of  the  lesson.  In  the  several 
branches,  ample  scope  is  afforded  to  point  out  how 
the  lesson  is  to  be  recited.  In  reading,  for  instance, 
pupils  should  be  apprized  beforehand  what  particular 
feature  of  it  will  be  made  the  special  topic  for  the 
next  recitation — whether  loudness,  distinctness,  the 
high  or  low  keys,  or  whatever  variety  may  be  named  : 
or  in  grammar,  whether  it  be  analysis  or  synthe&is, 
whether  of  words  or  sentences,  and  how ;  and  so  of 
other  branches.  Hence  the  manner  in  vihich  the  lesson 
is  to  be  recited  should  be  distinctly  named. 

And  lastly,  it  would  not  be  wise  to  name  or  require 
all  the  things  that  relate  to  the  various  kinds  of  reci- 
tations at  once.  Suppose  the  teacher  should  say  to  a 
class  in  reading,  for  instance,  "Now  I  want  you  to 
read  this  lesson  to-morrow  with  the  right  degree  of 
force  or  loudness,  on  the  right  key  or  pitch,  neither 


SCHOOL-ROOM    DUTIES.  39 

too  fast  nor  too  slow,  to  articulate  distinctly,  to  give 
the  proper  emphasis,  to  observe  all  the  pauses,  cir- 
cumflexes, sweeps,  bends,  slides,  closes,  and  every 
other  variation."  What  would  be  the  result?  Most 
likely,  that  not  one  of  these  things  would  be  observed, 
and  the  reason  is  quite  obvious.  It  would  be  about 
as  reasonable  as  to  demand  that  a  child  should  do 
as  many  different  kinds  of  work,  and  to  do  them  all 
well.  Suppose  you  wished  your  boy  to  remove  a  pile 
of  stone  to  a  different  quarter  of  the  yard.  He  goes  to 
work,  but  on  your  going  to  inspect  the  progress,  you 
find  him  tugging  and  toiling  to  remove  the  whole  pile 
at  once.  You  remonstrate  with  him  ;  but  he  says, 
"  Why,  father,  you  told  me  to  remove  this  pile  of  stone, 
and  I  am  doing  the  best  I  can."  "  So  I  did,"  would 
be  your  reply,  "  but  common  sense  ought  to  teach  you 
that  you  could  do  it  more  easily  and  quickly,  by 
taking  one  or  two  at  a  time."  So  common  sense 
ought  to  teach  teachers,  that  if  they  expect  or  even 
wish  to  accomplish  anything,  they  must  attend  to  one 
thing  at  a  time. 

It  could  hardly  be  expected  that  the  pupil  could  re- 
member even  the  one-half  the  list  named  to  him 
above,  much  less  that  he  should  accomplish  it.  But 
if  but  one,  or  at  most  two  things  be  attempted  at  once, 
and  then,  for  the  time  being,  all  the  energies  of  the 
body  and  mind  be  directed  to  them,  the  difficul- 
ties will  melt  away  gradually,  and  more  surely  than 
if  the  teacher  should  open  a  whole  battery  of  abuse 
against  the  scholar. 

Now  it  is  but  justice  to  say,  that  in  order  to  follow 
these  directions  and  recommendations,  it  will  require 
time  ;  but  if  this  be  offered  as  an  objection,  we  reply, 
as  on  a  former  occasion,  that  if   they  are  light  they 


40  THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 

have  as  much  claim  on  the  time  as  any  other  duties. 
But  it  will  not  be  inferred,  that  all  that  has  been  said 
of  the  last  topic,  for  instance,  will  be  required  at  every 
lesson.  The  probabilities  are,  that  not  more  than  one 
half  or  a  fourth  will  ever  be  required  at  any  one  time ; 
but  they  are  nevertheless  all  necessary,  and  all  de- 
manded in  their  proper  places.  It  will  be  found,  that 
from  three  to  five  minutes  will  be  amply  sufficient  to 
dispose  of  all  that  will  be  really  necessary  for  any  one 
recitation.  That  much  time  can  not  possibly  be  better 
spent.  It  will  be  ten  times  that  amount  saved  in  a 
very  few  weeks,  and  success  instead  of  failure  in 
the  end. 


42 


THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 


(     OBJECTS 
AND     ENDS. 


P 

I, 
/ 

H 
H 

K 

c 
c 

M 

i 
>i 

c 
c 
a 


I 


SYNOPSIS    II. 

To  discipline    the    mind.      To    learn  to  think. 
To  acquire  and    classify    knowledge. 
To  be  able  to  communicate  to    others. 


REQUISITES 
AND  MODES. 


C  Health.    Wholesome    air. 
Com  eniences.  <  Comfortable  seats.      Silence. 
v  A  time  set  apart  for  study. 

r  Observation. 
Antecedents.  •<  Interest. 
V.  Attention. 


^  Processes. 


f  Stratagem. 


MEANS   OF 
SECURING.    1 


C  Investigation. 

J  Reflection. 

(  Generalization. 

r  Attention  of  eye  and  ear.  Conversation 
J  Waking  up  mind.  Wonderful  phenomena 
V.  Mental  repetition.  Silent  Analysis. 


r  Objects.     Places.     Outline. 
Description.     1   Distance.     Excursions. 
I  Transactions.     StorieB. 


Direct    Ap- 

k  PEALS. 


Conscience.     Usefulness. 
Happiness.     Approbation. 
SelfMnterest.     Compulsion. 


STUDY.  43 


CHAPTER   II. 

STUDY. 

The  claims  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  to  special 
consideration,  are  such  as  scarcely  need  argument. 
Study,  with  recitation,  constitutes  the  great  staple  of 
the  school.  Without  it,  there  could  be  no  real  prog- 
ress or  development.  It  is  a  condition  of  growth  in 
the  intellectual  world,  as  essentially  as  cultivation  is  in 
the  vegetable  world  ;  and  the  condition  of  the  mind 
without  study  or  discipline,  is  not  inaptly  compared  to 
an  uncultivated  field,  over-grown  with  brambles  and 
unsightly  weeds.  Study  keeps  the  powers  from  stag- 
nation, and  the  mind  and  body  both  in  a  healthy  state. 
If  they  are  left  without  this  regulating  force,  either 
one  or  the  other,  or  both,  take  on  a  monstrous  or 
diseased  growth.  It  has  been  remarked  already,  that 
if  good  seed  is  not  sown,  bad  will  be  ;  if  good  habits 
are  not  formed,  bad  ones  will  be;  and  if  the  harvest 
is  not  garnered  by  skillful  hands,  it  will  be  trodden 
down  bv  the  feet  of  the  wicked  and  dissolute.  This 
is  true  in  an  intellectual  sense  as  well  as  in  a  moral. 

But  there  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  study  that 
must  be  removed,  before  any  successful  labor  can 
proceed.  These  difficulties  are  of  such  a  nature,  as 
often  to  defy  the  unaided  efforts  of  the  young.  One 
of  these  difficulties  exists  in  the  form  of  weakness,  or 
natural  inability  to  study,  arising  from  extreme  youth. 
The  mind,  like  the  body,  needs  practice,  before  it  can 


44  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

perform  its  functions  properly;  and  like  it,  too,  its 
motions  at  first  are  awkward,  feeble,  and  confined 
chiefly  to  the  simple  operations ;  and  they  are  of  short 
continuance. 

Again  :  the  difficulty  may  arise  from  constitutional 
dullness  or  stupidity.  This  also  finds  its  similitude  in 
bodily  weakness  and  imbecility.  Hence  the  same 
amount  and  kind  of  study  should  not  be  demanded 
of  all  alike,  any  more  than  the  same  amount  of  food 
and  labor  should  be  apportioned  to  all,  without  respect 
to  age  or  constitutional  differences. 

The  early  formation  of  bad  habits  is  another  fruitful 
source  of  difficulty.  These,  like  an  incubus,  weigh 
down  the  mind,  and  divert  it  from  its  proper  channel. 
The  mind,  in  its  natural  or  unobstructed  state,  possesses 
no  aversion  to  study  ;  but  by  wrong  treatment  and 
misdirected  effort,  early  prejudices  are  formed,  which 
become  serious  obstacles  to  healthy  study;  not  only  so, 
but  habits  of  superficial  study  are  formed,  which,  in  the 
end,  are  scarcely  less  formidable,  than  aversion  itself. 

Again  :  willful  obstinacy  is  a  condition  of  mind 
that  must  be  met  and  provided  for;  for  among  all  the 
obstacles,  none  will  demand  greater  patience  or  skill 
to  overcome.  From  these,  and  various  other  sources, 
the  mind  is  hindered  in  its  approaches  to  progress  and 
development;  so  that  we  would  be  safe  in  saying  that 
from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  time  devoted  to 
study  in  the  schools,  is  employed  to  little  or  no  pur- 
pose, or  perhaps  to  positive  disadvantage  to  the  pupil. 
This  would  seem  like  a  grave  charge  against  the 
institutions  of  our  country ;  and  yet  the  facts,  as 
carefully  deduced  from  experiment,  will  justify  the 
assertion.  The  very  time  and  energies  that  were 
intended  for  the  most  benevolent  purposes,  are  most 


STUDY.  45 

shamefully  perverted,  and  turned  against  the  child,  as 
a  shaft  of  self-destruction.  They  are  squandered,  and 
worse  than  squandered,  at  a  time  too  when  they  can 
least  be  spared.  This  is  too  fearful  an  expenditure  for 
the  morning  of  life;  and  the  loss  is  much  aggravated 
by  the  reflection,  that  what  is  lost  here  only  prepares 
the  way  for  subsequent  losses.  But  we  propose  to 
notice,  1.  The  Objects  of  study ;  2.  The  Requisites 
and  Processes ;  and  3.  The  Motives  and  Means  of 
securing  study. 

Article  1— Tlie  Objects  and  Ends. 

It  is  necessary  that  we  have  clear  ideas  upon  these 
points ;  otherwise  our  efforts  may  be  entirely  misdi- 
rected. It  will  be  found  also,  upon  the  examination 
of  pupils,  that  they  possess  very  inadequate  notions 
with  regard  to  the  true  objects  and  ends  of  study — 
many  of  them  ranging  no  higher  than  a  mere  desire 
to  recite  the  lesson  well,  to  keep  up  with  their  classes, 
or  to  receive  as  high  a  credit  as  possible.  Now  all  of 
these  may  be  well  enough  in  their  places  ;  but  any  one 
can  see,  that  they  are  not  the  objects  that  should  be 
held  before  the  mind,  to  guide  it  in  its  development. 
They  are  selfish  ;  and  their  attainment  would  defeat 
the  very  object  the  teacher  should  have  in  view  in 
requiring  study.  They  circumscribe  the  limits  of 
thought,  and  confine  the  mind  to  the  mere  drudgery 
of  selfish  toil. 

Again  :  others  get  the  idea  that  the  highest  object 
of  study  is  to  acquire  knowledge,  in  whatever  way 
tney  can.  Hence  they  come  to  regard  the  mind  as  a 
kind  of  warehouse,  or  lumber  room,  into  which  they 
may  deposit  their  knowledge  and  ideas  for  safe-keep- 
ing, rather  than  as  a  fruitful  field  to  be  cultivated,  that 


46  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

it  may  yield  a  continuous  supply  of  these,  all  fresh  and 
vigorous,  and  unlike  the  musty  and  withered  ware- 
house ideas,  dragged  forth  from  where  they  may  have 
been  molding  and  rusting  for  years. 

Section  1 — Discipline. — The  chief  object  of  study, 
therefore,  is  to  discipline  the  powers  of  the  mind,  or  to  learn 
to  think  closely,  accurately,  methodically  and  continuously. 
The  Americans — perhaps  justly — are  styled  a  nation 
of  talkers ;  and  if  there  is  truth  in  the  maxim,  that 
"  He  who  talks  much  must  talk  in  vain,"  this  is  no 
very  flattering  tribute  to  our  talent.  The  compliment 
would  certainly  be  more  acceptable  if  it  included 
thinking  also.  We  maintain  that  it  is  just  as  nec- 
essary that  we  learn  to  think,  as  that  we  learn  to 
talk  ;  not  that  talking  is  antagonistic  to  thinking  ;  but 
that  we  learn  to  think  independently  of  talking. 
There  seems  to  be  more  need  of  sound,  sober  thinking 
and  study,  than  for  the  proclivity  to  which  allusion  is 
made.  For  this  reason,  there  should  be  a  portion  of  the 
time  set  apart  for  the  cultivation  of  this  talent. 

It  will  also  be  found,  upon  the  examination  of  pu- 
pils, that  few  possess  the  power  to  think  or  study 
closely  and  accurately.  They  do  not  dive  into  the 
depth  of  a  subject,  but  skim  upon  the  surface.  Their 
thoughts  are  not  distinct  and  well-defined,  but  in  a 
blurred  and  indefinite  state.  This  may  be  called 
superficial  thinking  or  study,  and  affords  little  or  no 
discipline  for  the  mind. 

Others  again  may  possess  the  power  to  elaborate 
clear  thoughts;  but  they  lack  system  or  method. 
Their  thoughts  are  in  a  chaotic  state.  They  rush  on 
in  a  confused  and  disordered  manner.  Their  force  ia 
expended  without  accomplishing  the  desired  results. 


STUDY.  47 

They  resemble  the  disconnected  links  of  a  chain,  lying 
scattered  round.  The  links  themselves  are  all  proper 
enough,  but  there  is  no  connection.  Now,  it  is  the 
business  of  education  and  discipline  to  regulate  and 
bring  into  line  this  untamed  and  scattered  force,  and 
harness  it  into  the  car  of  consecutive  thought;  to  give 
point  and  efficiency  to  the  efforts  of  the  mind ;  not 
only  to  arouse  thoughts  in  the  mind,  but  t}  wing 
them,  and  send  them  on  their  mission. 

Another  difficulty  or  hindrance  to  successful  think- 
ing or  study,  is  the  want  of  the  power  of  concentra- 
tion or  continuous  effort.  Some  seem  to  be  able  to 
think  for  a  few  moments  vigorously,  but  are  unable 
to  protract  the  process  at  will,  to  any  considerable 
length.  They  resemble  those  birds  that  fly  rapidly 
for  a  few  rods,  but  are  unable  to  continue  long  upon 
the  wing.  Such  persons  must  necessarily  be  circum- 
scribed in  their  efforts;  for  it  is  only  by  continuous 
and  protracted  efforts  that  great  results  are  produced. 
There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  mere  passage  of 
thoughts  through  the  mind,  and  close  consecutive 
thinking.  The  one  resembles  the  fitful  glare  of  the 
meteor, — the  other,  the  steady  blaze  of  the  summer 
sun.  The  one  dazzles  the  eye  for  a  moment,  and 
then  disappears  in  darkness,- the  other  pours  down 
a  continuous  ray,  until  the  whole  firmament  is  in  a 
blaze.  Few  are  thus  capable  of  holding  their  minds 
upon  a  given  point,  until  it  has  mastered  it;  or  of 
commencing  at  the  beginning  of  a  subject,  and  think- 
ing it  through  without  stopping,  or  allowing  the  mind 
to  wander.  But  it  is  the  province  of  education  and 
discipline  to  impart  this  power;  to  arm  the  mind 
with  strength,  to  grapple  with  and  overcome  difficul- 
ties ;  to  subdue  and  chasten  it,  and  bring  it  under  such 


48  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

control  that  it  may,  at  pleasure,  bend  its  energies 
upon  a  given  poiht,  until  that  point  yields.  This  is 
discipline,  one  of  the  first  and  most  important  objects 
of  study.  Every  lesson  assigned  should  look  to  this 
object.  It  is  not  so  much  the  mere  acquisition  and 
possession  of  the  facts  in  science  that  educates,  as  it  is 
the  exercise  and  labor  of  acquiring. 

There  is,  therefore,  this  difference  between  acquisi- 
tion and  discipline,  between  instruction  and  education. 
Acquisition  and  instruction  collect  the  materials,dis- 
cipline  and  education  dispose  of  them  in  their  proper 
places.  The  first  feed  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  the 
second  exercise  them ;  the  first  constitute  the  means, 
the  second  the  ends  ;  the  first  develop  knowledge,  the 
second  power;  acquisition  is  learning,  discipline  is 
wisdom;  instruction  affords  nourishment,  education 
begets  strength.  Knowledge  is  the  accumulation  of 
facts  and  principles,  wisdom  is  the  ability  to  use  them. 
An  instructed  man  is  a  man  of  knowledge,  an  edu- 
cated man  is  a  man  of  wisdom.  Instruction  is  a  con- 
dition of  education;  knowledge,  of  wisdom ;  acquisition, 
of  discipline.  Instruction  and  acquisition  afford  the 
opportunities  of  improvement ;  educatiou  and  disci- 
pline make  use  of  these  opportunities  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  duties  of  life:  so  that  they  are  all  as 
essentially  necessary  to  perfect  development  of  mind, 
as  food  and  exercise  are  to  the  growth  and  perfect 
development  of  the  body. 

Section  2 — Acquisition. —  The  next  object,  there- 
fore, of  study  is  acquisition,  which,  while  it  does  not 
rank  as  high  as  that  of  discipline,  is  nevertheless,  no 
mean  object ;  and  one  of  the  most  fortunate  circum- 
stances connected  with  this  subject  is,  that  the  very  best 


STUDY.  49 

modes  for  discipline  are  the  very  best  for  acquisition, 
and  vice  versa.  That  acquisition  which  does  not  call 
into  exercise,  more  or  less,  all  the  powers  of  mind, 
should  at  least  be  distrusted.  This  is  evidently  the 
intention  of  acquisition,  that  while  it  feeds  the  mind, 
it  should  also  work  it,  and  make  it  strong.  The  mere 
acquisition,  without  the  discipline,  would  produce  the 
mental  dyspeptic,  whose  powers,  rather  enfeebled  than 
otherwise,  would  sink  down  under  the  unnatural 
burden. 

Section  3 — Communication. — But  suppose  the  in- 
dividual, if  it  were  possible,  should  stop  with  mere 
discipline  and  acquisition  ;  would  the  objects  and  pur- 
poses of  stud}7  be  fulfilled  ?  In  this  case,  he  would  re- 
semble the  miser  who  had  hoarded  away  his  silver  and 
gold,  to  canker  and  corrode  on  his  hands.  We  de- 
spise such  a  creature.  We  say  of  him,  "  There  goes  a 
man  that  has  robbed  the  world — the  widow  and  the 
orphan  of  their  dues."  Thousands  may  be  dying  of 
want,  and  yet  he  clutches  his  ill-gotten  gain  still 
more  tightly.  He  becomes  an  object  of  detestation 
and  loathing ;  and  he  ought  not  to  expect  more,  for 
he  has  no  right  to  human  sympathy,  since  he  gives 
none.  Ko  man  has  a  right  to  deprive  his  fellows  of 
the  necessities  of  life,  without  sufficient  cause.  But 
how  much  better  is  an  intellectual  miser,  one  who  has 
hoarded  away  his  intellectual  treasures,  while  the 
world  may  be  dying  for  them,  than  the  merely  phys- 
ical miser  ?  Rather,  we  should  ask,  how  much  worse  ? 
If  depriving  men  and  women  of  that  which  merely 
feeds  the  body,  becomes  a  crime,  what  must  the  enor- 
mity of  that  offense  be,  which  deprives  them  of  their 
mental  food  ? 
(5) 


50  THE   ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Here  again  would  appear  the  harmony  and  econo- 
my of  right  modes  of  education  ;  for  while  the  indi- 
vidual learner  is  most  actively  engaged  in  disciplining 
the  powers  of  his  mind  and  acquiring  knowledge,  he 
is  at  the  same  time  throwing  off  rays  which  enlighten 
others.     Man,  when  he  lives  right,  lives  not  for  him- 
self, but  for  others.     His  chief  advantage,  as  well  as 
his  chief  happiness  (and  they  are  never  separated), con- 
sists in  doing  good  to  others.     The  very  best  way  of 
disciplining   the  powers   of  our   own    minds,  and   of 
acquiring  knowledge,  is  to  make  use  of  those  powers 
in  giving  away  our  knowledge  as  fast  as  we  acquire 
it.     What  we  give  away,  we  keep  ;  what  we  keep,  we 
lose.     This  is  a  seeming  paradox,  but  it  is  no  less  than 
one  of  the  benevolent  designs  of  the  Creator;  for  if  a 
person  is  free  in  the  use  of  his  knowledge  and  intel-' 
lectual  powers,  he  not  only  keeps  what  he  has,  but  is 
constantly  acquiring  more  ;  whereas,  if  he  attempt  to 
retain  it,  without  using  it,  he  is  sure  to  lose  it.    Hence, 
"  To  him  that  hath  (and  uses)  shall  be  given,  and  he 
shall  have  more  abundance  ;  but  from  him  that  hath 
not  (improved)   shall  be  taken  awTay  that  which  he 
hath."    This  is  the  reason  why  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing, when  prop'erly  pursued,  offers  larger  opportunities 
for  thorough,  full-orbed  development  of  soul,  body 
and  intellect,  than  any  other  in   the  whole  range  of 
professions.    It  is  the  Heaven-appointed  means  of  per- 
petuating knowledge,  and  of  educating  the  race;   for 
when  and  while  an  individual   is  educating  himself, 
after  the  true   mode,  he   will  furnish   the  conditions 
whereby  all  within  the  circle  of  his  influence,  may  be 
educated.     A\    are,  therefore,  to  some  extent,  teach- 
ers, but  some  more  so  than  others  ;  and  the  more  fully 
they  act  in  this  sphere,  and  fulfill   the  conditions  of 


STUDY.  51 

the  true  teacher,  the  more  exalted  are  their  privileges 
and  powers.  By  the  very  nature  and  design  of  this 
profession,  it  furnishes  these  privileges  in  larger  meas- 
ure than  any  other;  for  while  it  gives,  it  receives, 
and  while  it  exercises,  it  strengthens.  Who  ever  heard 
of  a"  teacher  becoming  demented  by  teaching  ?  "When 
this  happens  (but  it  never  happens  from  real  teaching), 
the  teacher  is  no  longer  tit  for  service.  He  should 
therefore  be  removed,  and  treated  with  the  care  and 
humanity  which  such  unfortunate  beings  deserve. 

A  third  object  of  study,  therefore,  is  to  learn  to  com- 
municate to  others  what  we  have  learned  ourselves.  This 
object  should  be  kept  constantly  before  the  eye  of 
both  teacher  and  learner.  The  understanding  should 
be,  that  the  lesson  is  to  be  so  well  prepared  that  it 
may,  with  ease,  be  communicated  to  others.  This 
completes  the  discipline  and  renders  the  acquisition 
more  rapid  and  certain. 

Article  2— Requisites  and  Modes. 

There  are  certain  conditions  necessary,  in  order  to 
secure  the  results  anticipated  under  the  head  of  Ob- 
jects, etc.,  which  are  clearly  entitled  to  consideration. 
In  addition  to  those  named  in  the  introduction  to  this 
chapter,  there  are  others  of  a  more  special  character, 
which  will  be  treated  under  the  topics  Requisites  and 
Modes. 

Section  1 — Health,  Etc. — Among  the  conditions 
necessary  to  secure  good  study,  the  physical  health 
should  not  be  overlooked.  The  body  should  be  in  a 
sound  condition,  and  the  surrounding  circumstances 
should  all  be  favorable.  No  child  can  study  well,  when 
it  is  suffering  from  disease,  or  when  it  is  placed  in  an 


52  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

unnatural  and  uncomfortable  position.  But  to  attempt 
to  consider  all  the  conditions  of  the  body  necessary  to 
healthy  study,  in  detail,  would  require  a  treatise  on 
physiology  and  hygiene.  We  shall  content  ourselves, 
therefore,  by  noticing  a  few  of  the  more  general  points. 

1.  The  air  should  be  in  as  pure  a  state  as  possible. 
It  is  terrible  to  witness  the  suffering  that  arises  from 
breathing  impure  air.  It  vitiates  the  blood,  which,  in 
its  turn,  acts  upon  the  brain,  causing  disease  there, 
and  rendering  it  utterly  impossible  to  secure  anything 
like  a  healthy  action  of  that  organ.  Healthy  thoughts 
must  proceed  from  a  healthy  brain,  and  a  health  j 
brain  is  dependent  upon  healthy  blood,  and  healthy 
blood  can  not  exist  without  pure  air,  and  pure  air  can 
not  exist  in  poorly  ventilated  school-rooms.  Hence, 
healthy  thoughts  depend,  in  no  small  degree,  upon 
the  condition  of  the  school-room. 

There  has  been  much  said  and  written  upon  this 
subject  lately,  and  yet  people  have  not  more  than  be- 
gun to  open  their  eyes  upon  the  enormity  of  the  evils 
arising  from  the  want  of  pure  air,  in  the  growth  and 
education  of  children.  Teachers  and  pupils  are  yet 
confined  in  small  and  badly  ventilated  apartments 
from  two  to  three  hours  at  a  time,  with  scarcely 
breathable  air  euough  to  supply  the  demand  for  fifteen 
minutes.  The  results  are  pale,  sallow  countenances, 
headache,  colds,  indisposition,  languor,  fretful ness  and 
bad  temper,  and  a  general  dislike  to  the  school  and 
all  its  exercises ;  and  if  we  add  to  this  vitiated  atmos- 
phere a  dusty  and  filthy  school-room,  which  is  too 
apt  to  be  its  accompaniment,  we  have  all  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  produce  permanent  disease,  and 
sometimes  death.  ]STo  pecuniary  considerations  should 
be  weighed  against  the  provisions  for  furnishing  a 


STUDY.  53 

constant  supply  of  wholesome  air  to  the  inmates  of  the 
school-room. 

Section  2 — Seats. — Again  :  comfortable  seating  is 
a  consideration  of  no  small  importance.  It  is  plainly 
a  condition  which  ought  to  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  study.  No  successful  study  or  thinking  can 
be  carried  on  when  the  body  is  constantly  tortured 
by  confinement  in  uncomfortable  positions.  The  en- 
ergies of  the  mind  are  exhausted  in  devising  ways  and 
means  for  escape  or  diversion,  while  those  of  the  body 
are  either  exhausted  or  wrongly  directed  in  efforts  to 
endure  the  pain,  or  to  evade  it.  This  is  true  of  adults  : 
what  then  must  be  the  effects  upon  those  who  are  far 
less  able  to  bear  suffering?  Children  need  all  the 
minds  they  have  for  study ;  and  it  seems  strange  that 
any  other  means  should  be  devised  for  disposing  of 
them. 

But  these  evils  are  fast  disappearing  from  our 
schools.  People  are  coming  to  understand  more  fully 
the  physiological  and  psychological  nature  of  man  : 
that  there  is  really  a  connection  between  body  and 
mind,  and  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  torture  one  in 
order  to  develop  the  other;  but  that  when  any  injury 
is  inflicted  upon  the  one,  it  is  transmitted  to  the  other. 

Section  3 — Opportunity. — There  is  another  class 
of  conditions  or  requisites  which  we  shall  call  oppor- 
tunity. We  often  require  of  children,  what  they  are 
incapable  of  performing,  until  we  have  provided  them 
the  means,  or  removed  some  of  the  difficulties  from 
the  way.  Their  little  minds  are  weak,  and,  like  their 
bodies,  require  the  most  careful  treatment,  until  they 
acquire  strength.     They  are  incapable,  for  the  most 


54  THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 

part,  of  any  protracted  efforts  in  study  or  thinking , 
and  yet  it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  hear  teachers 
give  orders  like  the  following:  "Now  I  want  you  all 
to  be  perfectly  quiet  all  this  forenoon,  and  to  study  all 
the  time."  Now  if  the  teacher  really  means  what  he 
says,  in  this  requirement;  and  if  it  were  fulfilled  to 
the  letter,  for  a  series  of  days,  there  would  soon  be  a 
fine  job  for  the  undertaker.  The  teacher  in  this  case 
has  demanded  what  is  next  to  an  impossibility,  even  al- 
lowing the  necessary  movements  for  breathing,  &c. 
What,  children  to  be  perfectly  still  for  two  or  three 
hours  at  a  time  !  Why,  it  is  monstrous!  He  might 
with  about  the  same  propriety  have  said :  "  Now  don't 
you  breathe ;"  or,"  Don't  you  think  a  single  thought." 
Does  he  think  that  education  consists  in  being  still  ? 
Does  he  know  that  motion  is  a  law  of  the  universe, 
and  a  necessity  for  children  ?  and  that  what  he  has 
demanded,  viz.,  study,  requires  motion  ?  that  he  has 
interdicted  this  law  and  this  necessity  ?  Does  he 
know,  in  fact,  that  he  has  given  them  a  lesson  in  dis- 
obedience? that  they  must  necessarily  disobey  him? 
and  that  the  force  of  his  commands,  however  reasona- 
ble in  other  respects,  is  thereby  weakened  ? 

Now  if  children  were  vegetables,  and  required  to  be 
kept  in  one  position  all  the  time,  to  insure  their  growth, 
there  would  be  some  propriety  in  this  requirement. 
But  they  are  animals,  thinking  and  rational  animals 
that  require  alternate  rest  and  motion.  Education  is 
not  confinement ;  it  is  freedom  and  activity  of  body 
and  mind.  It  is  not  torture  and  pain  ;  it  is  pleasure 
and  enjoyment.  It  is  not  weakness  and  decrepitude; 
it  is  strength  and  vigor.  It  is  not  sickness;  it  is 
health.  It  is  not  death  ;  it  is  life,  glorious,  active, 
busy,  buoyant  life,  with  the  largest  liberty  and  most 


STUDY.  55 

perfect  development  of  all  of  man's  rational  and  legit- 
imate powers.  Why  then  should  the  teacher  make 
such  an  unreasonable  demand?  And  then  he  has  re- 
quired them  to  "  study  all  the  time."  He  might,  with 
about  the  same  propriety,  have  required  them  to  eat 
all  the  time.  It  is  impossible  for  them  to  study  all 
the  time.  Hence,  the  probabilities  are,  they  will  study 
none  of  the  time,  since  no  particular  portion  has  been 
assigned  them. 

Children  are  incapable  of  thinking  upon  one  subject 
more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.  Now  provisions 
should  be  made  to  suit  this  want.  One  of  these  would 
be  a  time  set  apart  and  devoted  exclusively  to  efforts, 
to  call  out  and  develop  thought.  The  ordinary  reci- 
tation will  accomplish  this  in  part;  but  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient. There  is  one  kind  of  thinking — and  the  most 
useful  kind,  too — that  it  does  not  necessarily  promote, 
viz.,  the  silent  thought,  so  necessary  in  preparing  les- 
sons. Children  do  not  know  how  to  study  or  to 
think  until  they  are  taught  how.  There  should,  there- 
fore, be  thinking  exercises,  in  which  nothing  else  is 
done  but  pure  thinking  or  study.  This  will  afford  op- 
portunity for  the  formation  of  the  habit  of  thought 
and  self-control,  which  is  so  valuable  in  every  pursuit 
in  life.  It  will  be  described  under  "  Means  of  Securing 
Study." 

Section  4 — Silence.  —  Again:  the  circumstances 
should  be  favorable  in  another  respect.  Silence  is  a 
condition  necessary  to  this  kind  of  study.  IsTo  pupils, 
unless  they  possess  extraordinary  powers  of  concen- 
tration, can  study  with  a  continual  noise  and  buzzing 
about  their  ears.  Their  powers  of  voluntary  attention 
are  necessarily  weak;- hence,  whenever  any  thing  from 


56  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

without,  having  a  stronger  attraction  Tor  them,  ob- 
trudes itself  upon  their  notice,  their  attention  is  drawn 
from  those  things  having  less  attractive  force.  There 
should,  therefore,  during  the  time  set  apart  for  think- 
ing or  study,  be  no  unnecessary  noise,  not  so  much  as 
moving  the  lips.  Children  should  be  taught  to  think 
with  their  mouths  shut.  Their  lips  are  not  the  neces- 
sary appendages  of  thought,  any  more  than  their  fin- 
gers or  toes  are.  Hence,  during  the  time  of  study, 
which  should  not  exceed  five  or  ten  minutes  at  a  time, 
children  should  not  be  allowed  to  interrupt  one  another 
by  studying  half  audibly  or  "  buzzing,"  as  it  is  com- 
monly called.  The  "  loud  school,"  as  it  is  termed  by 
some,  or  the  practice  of  studying  aloud,  is  an  anomaly, 
and  should  never  be  countenanced.  Whatever  may 
be  said  in  palliation  of  this  practice,  can  never  redeem 
it  from  the  objections  which  have  been  offered  above. 
The  silence  there  recommended,  will  afford  opportu- 
nity for  the  formation  of  the  habit  of  close  consecu- 
tive thinking,  which  will  do  more  to  strengthen  the 
power  of  attention  than  all  the  loud  study  that  can  be 
practiced.  Whatever  excellency  this  mode  of  study 
may  possess  as  a  means  of  cultivating  the  ability  to 
think  in  the  midst  of  confusion  (and  it  may  possess 
merit  in  this  respect),  is  more  than  counteracted  by 
the  loss  of  time  and  dissipation  of  thought  (to  say 
nothing  about  the  inconvenience  and  annoyance  to 
the  teacher),  by  the  noise  and  confusion  arising  from 
it.  And  then,  to  say  the  least  of  it  we  can,  if  it  is 
not  absolutely  disorderly  in  itself,  it  offers  one  of  the 
greatest  temptations  to  superficial  study,  and  for  car- 
rying on  mischief,  that  could  be  devised. 

Section  5 — Interest  and   Attention. — The   modes 


STUDY.  57 

of  study  are  also  worthy  of  notice.  All  valuable  study 
is  accompanied  with  interest  and  attention.  Attention 
is  the  key  to  investigation.  It  may  be  either  volun- 
tary or  involuntary.  The  former  is  the  genuine,  but 
it  often  becomes  necessary  to  resort  to  the  latter  as  a 
means  of  securing  it.  Children,  however,  seldom  pos- 
sess sufficient  self-command  to  force  attention.  It 
therefore  becomes  necessary  to  "  bait  them "  with  a 
little  interest,  and  the  more  the  better,  so  that  it  does 
not  amount  to  undue  excitement.  The  two  things, 
viz.,  interest  and  attention,  are  so  nearly  allied  to  each 
other,  in  the  process  of  study,  that  it  seems  difficult  to 
separate  them ;  and  that  study  (?)  which  is  secured  at 
the  expense  of  either  is  of  little  or  no  value.  Children 
may  "say  their  lessons  over"  from  morning  till  noon, 
and  from  noon  till  night,  without  securing  the  disci- 
pline which  it  is  the  design  of  study  to  give. 

There  is  a  kind  of  attention  which  is  not  desirable. 
It  is  that  which  forces  the  lesson  for  the  time  being 
upon  the  memory,  and  charges  it  to  keep  it  until  after 
recitation  ;  but  further  than  that,  it  does  not  concern 
itself.  This  kind  of  attention  and  study  seldom  leaves 
the  mind  any  better  than  it  found  it.  Indeed,  aside 
from  the  little  knowledge  that  may  accidentally  have 
clung  to  the  walls  of  memory  in  its  rapid  passage 
through  (for  it  does  not  remain  there),  the  mind  is 
rather  injured  than  otherwise  by  the  formation  of  a 
bad  habit.  Just  as  soon,  however,  as  any  thing  having 
the  properties  that  possess  attraction  for  the  mind,  is 
presented  to  it,  interest  is  excited,  and  attention  is 
elicited.  The  mind  is  now  in  a  favorable  state  for 
progress.  A  series  of  inquiries  are  at  once  begotten, 
which  result  in  investigation  and J£JkM$WE  — ififeese  may 
be,  at  first,  in  a  feeble  state — ^^^^j3^^^3^6^^tee(l- 

PfiversittI 


58  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

For  instance  :  take  the  young  child  in  the  nursery. 
Give  him  some  pleasing  toy.  His  interest  and  atten- 
tion are  at  once  excited.  This  must  be  the  case, 
or  he  would  not  even  notice  it ;  much  less  become  ab- 
sorbed in  it.  Now  mark  the  process  that  follows  the 
interest  and  attention,  just  as  surely  as  the  thunder 
follows  the  lightning,  or  as  light  is  the  result  of 
the  rising  of  the  sun.  He,  in  all  probability,  breaks, 
tears  or  bites  his  toy ;  for  his  hands  are  his  instru- 
ments of  apprehension,  and  his  mouth  is  his  test-tube, 
retort  and  crucible,  into  which  he  introduces  all  his 
substances  for  examination  and  experiment.  But  in 
all  this,  is  that  boy  doing  nothing  more  than  merely 
amusing  himself?  It  would  seem  so;  and  he  can 
give  no  further  account  of  it,  himself.  He, perhaps,  is 
unconscious  of  any  further  motive.  But  watch  him. 
What  prompted  that  desire  and  that  movement  ? 
They  must  have  a  cause  ;  and  their  existence  indicates 
design.  They  could  not  have  been  given  for  the  pur- 
poses of  mischief  and  destruction  alone.  This  would 
be  impeaching  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the 
Creator.  But  there  is  the  wisest  and  most  benevolent 
design  connected  with  all  this.  What  therefore,  shall 
we  call  all  this  manipulation  and  experiment?  It  is 
investigation  in  its  nascent  state ;  and  though  it  may 
scarcely  bear  a  mark  of  that  exalted  mental  operation, 
as  it  appears  in  manhood,  yet  that  little  boy  is  inves- 
tigating just  as  essentially  as  the  chemist  in  the  labora- 
tory, or  the  mathematician  at  his  formula,  or  the 
astronomer  as  he  sweeps  the  heavens  with  his  tele- 
scope. They  are  all  investigating,  the  one  as  essen- 
tially as  the  other,  with  this  difference,  that  in  the 
latter  case,  the  process  is  guided  by  judgment  and 
will  ;  in  the  former,  by  mere  impulse.     The  first  is  in- 


STUD?.  59 

vestigation  in  embryo ;  in  the  second,  it  is  ripened  into 
a  purer  and  higher  type.  In  the  first,  it  is  investiga- 
tion to  gratify  an  apparently  idle  curiosity;  in  the 
second,  to  answer  the  highest  aims  of  life;  but  it  is 
easy  to  trace  back  this  higher  form,  through  all  the 
various  stages,  until  we  arrive  at  the  very  threshold 
of  intelligence ;  or  until  we  find  it  in  its  incipient  state, 
in  the  nursery  and  among  the  toys.  Hence  it  will  be 
seen,  that  investigation  becomes  a  second  step  in  learn- 
ing, and  therefore  a  mode  of  study.  The  process 
itself  has  been  described  in  the  Science  of  Education. 
But  with  pure  investigation  alone,  the  mind  would 
not  receive  the  full  benefits  of  study.  It  is  followed 
by  memory  and  reflection,  as  surely  as  investigation 
follows  interest  and  attention.  The  memory  gathers 
up  the  thoughts  and  fragments  of  thoughts,  as  they 
are  disengaged  from  the  subject  of  study.  Reflec- 
tion is  the  power  which  the  mind  possesses  of  re- 
viewing its  own  conclusions  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
certaining more  certainly  their  truth,  and  of  fixing 
the  facts  and  principles  more  permanently,  in  their 
appropriate  place.  Just  as  soon,  therefore,  as  the 
mind  becomes  active  in  the  pursuit  of  truth,  these 
several  processes  commence,  as  surely  and  essentially 
as  the  several  wheels,  bands,  cranks  and  spindles 
all  start  off  in  motion  when  the  power  is  applied  at 
the  water-wheel,  or  at  the  engine.  How  vain,  there- 
fore, to  attempt  to  put  this  tremendous  machinery  in 
motion  by  tugging  at  some  of  the  bands,  or  twisting 
at  some  of  the  spindles  !  And  yet  this  is  the  process, 
when  we  attempt  to  secure  study  without  Interest 
and  Attention.  But  let  the  engine  move ;  and,  if 
the  gearing  is  perfect,  the  whole  machinery  will 
move  also. 


60  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Section  6 — Abstraction,  Generalization,  etc. — 
There  are  yet  other  processes,  following  or  accom- 
panying investigation  etc.,  which  while  they  may  be 
regarded  as  a  part  of  it,  nevertheless  have  some  dis- 
tinctive characteristics,  worthy  of  a  separate  notice. 
Their  importance  also  to  teaching  and  learning  is 
such   as  to  entitle  them  to  a  brief  recognition. 

As  the  mind  advances,  step  by  step,  from  the  simple 
notices  and  apprehensions,  on  through  the  several 
stages  of  investigation  and  reflection,  it  arrives  at  a 
point  where  there  is  an  evident  need  of  other  opera- 
tions, growing  out  of  its  own  relations  and  the  exist- 
ence of  matter.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  investigate 
this  feature  of  the  subject,  further  than  to  show  the 
character  of  this  want,  and  the  mode  of  supplying  it. 

For  instance  :  if  the  mind  should  halt  in  its  progress, 
when  it  had  investigated  or  tracked  out  all  the  facts  and 
apprehensions,  its  state  would  resemble  that  condition, 
should  it  pause  with  simple  acquisition.  It  might  not 
be  able  to  appropriate  its  acquisitions  to  the  purposes 
for  which  they  were  intended.  Abstraction,  or  that 
power  which  enables  it  to  separate  and  consider,  apart, 
particular  and  distinct  properties  or  species,  arising 
out  of  general  or  complex  subjects,  becomes  neces- 
sary. Children,  for  the  most  part,  are  incapable  of 
doing  this,  to  any  great  extent.  Care,  therefore, 
should  be  taken  in  the  arrangement  of  their  studies, 
not  to  perplex  their  minds  with  those  studies  that 
require  too  much  abstraction. 

The  process  of  generalization,  or  the  power  to 
arrange  under  their  appropriate  heads,  the  facts  and 
principles  elicited  in  the  process  of  investigation,  is 
indispensable  to  learning  and  teaching.  It  completes 
the  modes  or  processes  of  thinking,  just  as  communi- 


STUDY.  61 

cation  or  the  art  of  expression,  to  which  it  is  prepara- 
tory and  an  indispensable  prerequisite,  completes  the 
object  of  study.  It  will  be  observed,  therefore,  that 
the  objects  of  study  and  requisites  are  concomitants,  the 
one  answering  to  the  other  in  points  of  mutual  coop- 
eration. Thus  :  health  and  convenience,  interest  and 
attention,  being  indispensable  to  discipline  and  thought, 
investigation  (including  the  other  mental  operations), 
to  the  acquisition  of  knowlege,  and,  lastly, abstraction 
and  generalization  to  that  of  communication  or  the 
art  of  teaching.  The  application,  or  process  of  mak- 
ing use  of  knowledge  constitutes,  within  itself,  a  mode 
or  process  of  culture ;  but  its  claims  have  been  con- 
sidered elsewhere. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  objects,  requisites, 
and  modes  of  study  distinctly  in  mind,  while  investi- 
gating the  means  of  securing  it,  since  the  success  of 
the  whole  system,  and  indeed  of  any  system,  will  de- 
pend upon  the  closeness  with  which  we  adhere  to  the 
principles  involved  in  it.  For  this  reason  we  have 
been  more  particular  in  describing  some  of  the  mental 
processes  concerned  in  successful  study. 

Article  3— Means  of  Securing  Study. 

It  might  be  well  now  to  inquire  after  the  means 
whereby  this  valuable  mental  exercise  can  be  elicited 
and  conducted.  In  doing  so,  we  shall  have  recourse 
to  the  following  classification  of  means  :  1.  By  Strata- 
gem. 2.  By  Narrative  and  Description.  3.  By  DireH 
Appeals. 


Section  1 — Stratagem. — These  terms  will  need  a 
little  explanation,  since  it  is  not  claimed  that  they  con- 


62  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

vey  any  particular  direction  in  and  of  themselves ;  nor 
yet  is  it  claimed  that  they  are  the  best  that  could  be 
used  :  they  are  only  the  best  we  could  find.  We  shall 
hope,  therefore,  to  receive  some  indulgence,  if  we  suc- 
ceed in  making  their  use  intelligible  in  this  connection. 
For  instance :  it  is  not  intended  by  the  use  of  the  word 
u  stratagem,"  that  we  may  resort  to  deception  and  low 
tricks  in  securing  study;  but  rather,  a  judicious  em- 
ployment of  means  and  motives  that  have  been  fur- 
nished us  by  the  Creator  for  the  express  purpose  of 
calling  out  and  adorning  the  minds  of  the  young.  It 
is  employed  in  the  sense  of  tact,  skill,  wisdom,  pru- 
dence, forecast,  or  strategy,  which  last,  perhaps,  would 
be  a  better  word.  Xarrative  and  Description  are  used 
to  indicate  that  mode  of  inducing  thought  and  study, 
by  calling  out  and  making  use  of  the  knowledge 
already  acquired,  as  a  means  of  inciting  to  further 
acquisitions  and  use.  The  Direct  Appeals  have  refer- 
ence to  a  class  of  motives  that  may  be  used,  according 
to  circumstances,  with  a  higher  grade  of  development, 
such  as  we  usually  find  in  the  intermediate  and  high 
schools. 

In  describing  the  various  devices  that  may  be  re- 
sorted to,  in  leading  children  into  habits  of  thinking, 
we  shall  consider  the  simpler  modes  first,  on  the  sup- 
position that  we  are  operating  with  small  children, 
and  thence  pass  to  the  more  advanced.  It  was  stated 
in  the  article  on  the  "  Object  of  Study,"  that  to  disci- 
pline the  mind,  or  to  learn  to  control  its  powers,  is  one 
of  the  first  and  most  important  objects;  and  in  the 
article  on  "Requisites  and  Modes,"  that  health,  con- 
venience, opportunity,  interest,  and  attention  are  re- 
quisites that  could  not  be  dispensed  with.  It  is  not 
within  the  province  of  a  work  of  this  kind,  to  descend 


STUDY. 


G3 


to  the  particular  modes  of  fulfilling  the  first  thieo  con- 
ditions, further  than  they  are  described  in  the  preced- 
ing. These  being  complied  with  as  far  as  possible,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  inquire  after  the  best  modes  of 
eliciting  interest,  and  cultivating  attention,  that  vagrant 
of  the  mind,  which,  when  once  tamed,  becomes  the 
engineer  of  investigation — the  key  that  unlocks  the 
storehouses  of  knowledge. 

In  order  to  possess  ourselves  of  the  citadel  of  atten- 
tion, we  must  besiege  the  outposts  and  gain  admittance 
through  the  open  gates ;  for  to  batter  down  the  walls 
and  force  a  passage  (even  were  this  possible)  would 
yield  no  advantage,  since  by  committing  this  outrage, 
we  render  useless  all  the  engines,  ammunition  and 
energies  of  the  besieged.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that 
the  entrance  be  made  through  the  natural  gates;  and 
since  these  are  open  during  all  the  waking  hours  of  the 
mind,  the  difficulties  of  admittance  are  much  reduced. 
Again  :  to  render  success  certain,  we  must  approach 
these  outposts,  not  as  enemies,  not  as  a  belligerent  force, 
but  as  friends,  seeking  the  peace  and  happiness  of  the 
inmates.  This  citadel  is  rendered  still  more  accessible, 
from  the  fact  that  the  sentinels  on  the  outposts  are 
continually  on  the  alert,  and  seeking  some  one  to 
enter,  that  will  give  them  exercise  and  pleasure.  They 
however,  persistently  refuse  to  admit  any  that  will  not 
give  promise  to  this  effect. 

The  eye  and  the  ear  are  the  two  grand  gateways  or 
highways  to  this  citadel  of  thought;  since,  if  these, 
with  one  other,  which  is  a  kind  of  subterraneous 
passage — the  sense  of  touch,  or  the  avenue  of  tactual 
knowledge — were  closed  before  any  impressions  have 
been  made  through  them,  however  perfect  the  organ- 
ism in  other  respects  may  be,  the  individual  would  be 


(J4  THE    ART    OF     TEACHING. 

incapable  of  the  exercise  of  thought.  The  teacher 
should,  therefore,  first  avail  himself  of  the  command 
of  those  avenues,  that  he  may  direct  their  energies 
upon  proper  themes;  or,  rather,  he  should  so  operate 
upon  them,  and  the  mind  through  them,  that  their 
notices  and  the  whole  attention  shall  be  as  nearly 
voluntary  as  possible.  Take,  for  example,  the  eye 
the  window  to  the  mind,  which,  in  childhood,  is  ever 
on  the  alert,  ever  seeking  gratification  and  food  for 
the  mind.  The  object  should  be  to  train  it,  not  only 
to  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  but  to  habits  of 
close  observation,  and  continuous  application  for  a 
given  period. 

Many  children  are  incapable  of  confining  even  their 
eyes  to  observe  anything  closely,  for  a  minute  at  a 
time.  Hence,  when  the  eye  wanders,  the  attention 
wanders  also.  The  weakness  of  mind  in  this  respect 
on  the  part  of  children,  is  truly  remarkable.  They 
may  be  induced,  it  is  true,  to  look  at  a  beautiful 
picture,  a  flower,  or  something  novel  or  wonderful, 
for  a  greater  length  of  time,  and  even  here  the  obser- 
vation is  apt  to  be  superficial ;  but  to  confine  the 
attention  at  will,  and  make  it  do  the  bidding  of  the 
mind,  are  matters  of  such  difficulty,  that  few  children 
can  accomplish  them  without  special  assistance.  Many, 
indeed,  spend  half  their  time  in  weak  and  ineffectual 
efforts  to  study  ;  while  others,  from  the  same  want  of 
discipline,  spend  still  a  greater  portion  of  theirs  in 
mischief. 

$"ow,  this  error  can  be  corrected,  and  this  fearful 
loss  and  abuse  of  time  and  energy  can  be  saved.  This 
squandering  was  never  intended  ;  and  if  the  common 
schools  can  not  correct  the  evil,  then  they  are  not  the 
proper    instrumentalities    for    the    education  of  the 


STUDY.  65 

people.  What  we  wish  to  cultivate  in  the  children 
is  the  power  to  fix  the  attention  at  will,  and  to  hold  it 
upon  a  subject  until  the  object  for  which  it  is  held,  is 
accomplished ;  or  in  other  words,  the  fowev  to  study 
their  lessons  and  to  think.  The  ordinary  mode,  or  that 
which  children,  if  left  to  their  unaided  efforts,  are  apt 
to  adopt,  does  not  do  this  ;  since  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  see  a  whole  bevy  of  children  actively  engaged 
in  what  they  call  study,  while  perhaps  not  one  in  ten 
is  exercising  his  thoughts  upon  the  lesson.  Such 
study  is  a  positive  injury. 

A  little  expedient,  to  which  I  have  resorted,  on 
some  occasions,  may  be  suggestive  of  means  that  may 
be  adopted  for  correcting  these  evils,  and  of  fixing  the 
attention.  Holding  up  my  watch  to  the  school,  I 
have  said,  "  How  many  of  these  little  boys  and  girls 
can  look  at  it  for  one  minute  at  a  time?"  The  idea 
perhaps  is  a  novel  one,  and  their  little  voices  and 
hands  will  respond,  anxious  for  the  experiment.  Some 
will  say  boastingly, "  I  can  look  at  it  an  hour !  "  "  Two 
hours !"  responds  another  little  captain  who  is  anxious 
to  make  a  display  of  his  prowess.  At  this  juncture, 
I  ask,  "  How  many  would  be  willing  to  make  the  ex- 
periment of  one  minute  continuous  looking,  provided 
I  should  give  you  iive  dollars  if  you  should  succeed  ?" 
At  this  announcement  there  is  a  shower  of  hands  and 
a  shout  of  voices  raised  to  the  highest  pitch.  "Well 
I  will  not  promise  you  the  five  dollars ;  but  let  us  try." 
"All  ready!"  "Now!"  and  their  forms  straiten  up, 
and  all  eyes  are  bent  with  intense  earnestness  upon 
the  watch.     It  grows  very  quiet,  and  every  one  listens 

and   looks Presently  it   occurs  to  half  a 

dozen  or  more  of  them,  that  they  are  doing  it  about 

right.     "  I  wonder  if  John,  or  Charles,  01   James,  or 
0 


66  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Mary,  or  Jane, or  Ellen  is  looking  too?"  "  Wonder  if 
they  all  are  doing  as  well  as  I  am,"  and  their  thoughts 
leave  the  watch,  and  the  promise,  and  wander  after 
Charles  or  Jane,  and  the  temptation  to  look  away 
becomes  so  great  that  in  about  a  half  a  minute  or  less, 
you  will  see  an  occasional  pair  of  eyes  glance  hurriedly 
to  some  convenient  quarter  of  the  room,  and  back 
quick,  to  the  watch  again  :  others,  still  less  cautious, 
will  turn  the  head,  and  look  carelessly  away  ;  others 
again,  will  drop  off*  entirely,  and  cease  to  look ;  while 
some,  more  resolute  and  determined  and  careful  than 
the  rest,  will  not  remove  their  eyes  for  a  moment,  and 
at  the  expiration  of  the  time,  will  announce  their  tri- 
umph with  evident  satisfaction.  At  the  close,  some  will 
insist  upon  a  new  trial.  It  may  be  granted ;  and  then 
others  will  succeed:  and  here  it  might  be  well  to  vary 
the  experiment.  The  question  might  be  asked:  "If 
you  are  capable  of  holding  your  eyes  fixed  upon  that 
watch,  can  you,  with  equal  success,  confine  them  to  a 
picture  or  mark  upon  the  board  ? "  This  experiment 
may  also  be  made  and  repeated,  accompanied  with 
such  explanations  and  variations,  as  may  seem  de- 
sirable. 

"Now  if  you  can  look  at  a  watch,  a  picture,  or  a 
mere  chalk  mark  upon  the  board,  for  a  given  time, 
can  you  look  at  your  books  as  long,  without  change?" 
The  intention  here,  perhaps,  will  be  discovered  by 
some;  and  they  will  begin  to  see  the  force  of  it. 
Let  the  experiment  be  made,  however,  and  repeated 
with  the  book,  without  attempting  to  study.  Indeed 
I  would  not  allow  them  to  study,  for  the  first  few  trials. 
They  must  simply  look.  And  if  they  succeed  well,  sug- 
gest that  if  they  can  look  upon  one  page  of  the  book, 
they  might  study  that  long,  without  looking  away.  And 


STUDY.  67 

here  it  might  be  well  to  explain  the  whole  matter  to 
them,  and  pledge  them  to  an  exercise  of  this  kind,  once 
or  twice  a  day.  This  would  be  applicable,  of  course,  only 
to  those  who  can  read  or  spell ;  but  it  may  be  varied  to 
suit  any  grade.  And  if  they  can  thus  confine  the  at- 
tention for  one,  two  or  three  minutes,  they  can  also,  by 
practicing,  continue  it  to  five  and  six.  But  it  will  be 
found  that  young  scholars  are  not  able  to  endure  more 
than  three  or  four  minutes,  even  after  weeks  and 
months  of  practice. 

A  similar  stratagem  may  be  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  quiet,  for  a  limited  time,  and  then  it 
should  not  be  insisted  upon  beyond  that  time.  All 
noise  may  be  hushed  for  a  minute  at  a  time,  and  then 
for  two,  three,  four,  etc.  Here  it  might  be  well  to  sug- 
gest, "What  an  excellent  opportunity  for  study!" 
Show  the  importance  of  quiet  in  study ;  the  advan- 
tages of  doing  but  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  of  doing 
that  well.  Pledge  the  children  to  the  trial ;  and  exper- 
iment patiently  with  them,  until  the  results  are  secured. 

Now  the  question  arises:  Can  they  think  of  their 
lessons  for  the  required  length  of  time  ?  for  there  is 
such  a  thing,  all  are  aware,  as  watching  and  mouthing 
lessons,  without  study  or  thought;  or  at  least,  while 
the  thoughts  are  busied  about  something  else.  The 
object  now  is  to  induce  the  mind  to  follow  the  eye. 
This,  a  few  weeks  of  practice  will  usually  accomplish, 
yet  it  can  be  greatly  facilitated  by  a  few  special  ex- 
ercises, similar  to  those  described  for  the  eye,  only  the 
object  now  is  to  confine  the  mind  upon  the  subject  of 
experiment.  Suppose  this  to  be  the  watch,  as  before. 
"Now  how  many  can  think  of  the  watch,  for  one 
minute,  or  during  the  time  that  the  eye  and  the  ear 
are  giving  attention  ?  " 


68  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

It  will  be  better  here,  however,  to  select  some  object 
about  which  it  will  be  easier  tor  them  to  employ  their 
thoughts.  The  pictures  of  animals  will  form  good 
subjects,  since  their  nature,  habits  and  the  anecdotes 
respecting  them  will  form  excellent  topics  of  thought 
while  suitable  experiments  are  made.  These  exper- 
iments should  be  repeated,  both  with  an.d  without  the 
looking  exercises,  until  satisfactory  results  are  secured. 
At  first  the  novelty  of  the  thing  itself  will  prevent,  to 
some  extent,  the  accomplishment  of  the  object;  but  by 
and  by,  if  the  practice  is  persisted  in,  the  habit  will 
become  a  matter  of  ease  and  pleasure. 

Now  it  is  not  maintained  that  these  are  the  only 
modes  of  cultivating  attention.  They  only  constitute 
a  class  that  may  be  varied  to  almost  any  extent,  and 
are  useful  chiefly  in  preparing  the  way  for  study.  If 
five  minutes  of  each  day  were  thus  employed,  even  if 
nothing  more  is  attempted  than  merely  keeping  quiet 
and  looking  at  the  book,  it  would  be  worth  practicing, 
since  it  would  then  exceed  what  many  children  do, 
without  such  an  exercise.  The  habit  of  idling  time 
away,  in  fidgety  attempts  to  study,  or  of  gazing  into  a 
book,  pretending  to  study,  in  order  to  deceive  the 
teacher,  is  not  only  a  shameful  waste  of  time,  but  it  is 
ruining  the  morals  of  the  pupil ;  for  what  is  it  but 
downright  hypocrisy  and  lying?  And  yet  I  have 
known  it  to  be  practiced  from  morning  till  night,  and 
from  week  to  week,  and  term  to  term,  with  scarcely  a 
variation.  Can  it  be  expected  that  boys  and  girls, 
taught  after  this  fashion,  will  do  any  thing  else  than 
deceive  whenever  occasion  is  offered?  Like  will  not 
produce  its  like,  if  they  will  not.  And  let  it  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  a  lie  can  be  acted  as  well  as  be  told 
with  the  tongue. 


STUDY.  69 

But  this  practice  of  devoting  just  so  much  time  of 
each  day,  to  silent  thought  and  study,  strikes  at  the 
very  root  of  this  evil.  It  has  a  tendency,  not  only  to 
break  up  the  bad  habit,  but  to  form  its  opposite  ;  and 
the  lessons  which  cause  hours  of  anxiety,  perplexity 
and  dread,  not  to  say  sin,  may  be  disposed  of  in  a  few 
minutes.  Then  the  books  should  be  laid  aside,  not 
kept  as  tormentors  of  the  little  folks,  or  to  hide  their 
mischievous  faces  behind,  but  laid  aside,  to  be  taken  up 
again  when  the  exercise  is  to  be  renewed,  or  a  recita- 
tion is  to  be  heard :  laid  aside,  and  their  little  busy 
hands  and  brains  furnished  with  other  emplo}Tment. 
This  will  not  only  keep  them  out  of  mischief,  but  will 
use  up  all  their  mischievous  desires  in  profitable  labor. 

Not  to  be  tedious  in  description,  we  only  add  that 
there  are  other  means  of  inducing  children  to  think, 
which  may  be  treated  under  the  head  of  Conversation. 
These  appeal  more  to  the  voluntary  than  the  involun- 
tary attention,  and  may  include  all  the  exercises  that 
were  described  in  Chap.  VI. ,  Science  of  Education, 
to  which  the  reader  is  again  referred.  Conversation 
possesses  a  power  over  the  minds  of  children,  amount- 
ing almost  to  magic.  Here  is  the  place  to  make  use 
of  it,  in  inciting  the  incipient  thoughts  to  action, 
and  in  putting  in  practice  what  has  been  heretofore 
recommended.  The  exercise  may,  by  way  of  distinc- 
tion, be  called  waking  up  mind  by  a  recital  of  interest- 
ing narratives,  etc.,  and  a  description,  or  rather  an 
allusion  to  some  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  of 
nature — such  as  described  in  the  chapter  alluded  to 
above. 

Still  another  mode  might  be  described  here ;  though 
it  is  no"  strictly  strategical.  We  shall  call  it  mental 
repetition,  and  append  a  brief  explanation  ;  but  first  the 


70  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

difficulties  it  is  intended  to  remove.  Many  children, 
as  has  been  remarked,  are  incapable  of  carrying  for- 
ward a  series  of  mental  operations,  without  some  ex- 
traneous aids;  and  unless  these  aids  are  furnished, 
they  too  frequently  remain  in  this  state  of  inability. 
They  need  something  to  cling  to,  until  their  minds 
acquire  strength  to  move  without  the  "  props  and 
stays."  In  some  instances,  the  evil  manifests  itself  in 
the  want  of  power  to  reproduce  what  may  have  been 
understood.  This  acts  adversely  upon  the  ability 
to  think  independently ;  for  if  a  person  have  the 
power  to  call  to  mind  a  connected  series  of  words  and 
sentences,  and  to  follow  a  train  of  thought  furnished 
by  another,  he  will  find  less  difficulty  in  his  independ- 
ent efforts,  since  the  efforts  thus  made  produce  the 
required  discipline;  hence  the  utility  of  mental  repe- 
tition, or  the  practice  of  frequently  and  statedly  calling 
to  mind  the  words,  sentences  and  thoughts  of  others. 
It  should  be  commenced  gradually,  and  something 
after  the  following  manner: 

Let  a  brief,  simple  sentence  composed  of  three  or  four 
words,  be  read  in  the  hearing  of  the  class,  requiring  each 
member,  as  soon  as  it  is  completed,  to  call  all  the  words 
to  mind,  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred  in  the  sen- 
tence. When  completed,  let  it  be  announced  by  the 
uplifted  hand.  Then  let  the  same  sentence  be  repeat- 
ed, compelling  the  mind,  without  the  aid  of  speech,  to 
examine  every  word  carefully,  as  it  passes  before  its 
vision.  Another  of  greater  length  may  then  be  intro- 
duced and  treated  in  the  same  manner.  And  so  on, 
until  by  practice,  say  five  or  six  minutes  per  day,  the 
class  will,  in  a  few  weeks  or  months,  be  able  thus  to 
call  to  mind  the  consecutive  words  of  sentences  com- 
posed of  twenty,  thirty  and,  in  some  cases,fifty  words. 


STUDY.  71 

This  cultivates  close  attention,  and  the  pupils  that  can 
thus  hold  the  mind  upon  the  words  of  a  sentence,  will 
soon  learn  to  make  use  of  the  same  power  in  the  pur- 
suit of  other  subjects.  It  is  learning  how  to  think  con- 
secutively. 

The  same  thing,  with  slight  modifications,  is  prac- 
ticed in  many  of  the  best  schools.  A  sentence  is  read 
to  a  class,  and  then  the  members,  in  consecutive  order, 
are  required  to  spell  the  words  as  they  occur  in  the 
sentence,  without  the  teacher's  repeating  them ;  and 
it  is  astonishing  to  witness,  not  only  the  accuracy  and 
rapidity  with  which  they  will  reproduce  the  whole, 
but  the  extent  to  which  they  will  carry  it,  often  spell- 
ing sentences  composed  of  thirty,  forty  and  fifty 
words,  after  hearing  them  once  pronounced. 

Now,  children  taught  in  this  way  are  not  so  apt  to 
forget  what  they  hear  and  read.  They  are  not  com- 
pelled to  read  the  same  page  a  half-dozen  times  before 
fixing  it  in  mind;  and,  hearing  a  discourse  or  lecture, 
they  will  be  more  apt  to  remember  it,  in  the  order  in 
which  it  was  delivered. 

Still  another  method,  ^hich  we  shall  call  Silent 
Analysis,  may  be  employed  with  success.  Its  chief 
use,  however,  would  be  confined  to  pupils  who  possess 
the  power  of  calculation,  to.  some  extent.  It  may  be 
described  thus.  The  teacher  reads  a  question  like  the 
following:  "  If  three  oranges  cost  fifteen  cents,  what 
will  seven  oranges  cost?"  The  class  is  now  required 
not  to  give  the  answer,  which  could  be  done,  perhaps, 
almost  the  instant  the  question  is  announced;  but  they 
are  required  to  pass  quietly  over  the  whole  example, 
bringing  vividly  before  the  mind,  and  examining  every 
step  of  the  analysis  ;  thus,  in  thought,  "  If  three  oranges 
cost  fifteen  cents,  one  orange  will  cost  one  third  of  fifteen 


72  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

cents,  which  is  five  cents;  and  if  one  orange  cost  fiv 
cents,  seven  oranges  will  cost  seven  times  five  cents,which 
are  thirty-five  cents,"  examining  every  step  and  word 
as  they  pass  along,  and  when  the  conclusion  is  reached, 
to  announce  it  simply  by  the  uplifted  hand ;  then,  at 
a  given  signal,  all  are  required  to  review  the  process 
and  report  as  before.  Another  question  or  example 
may  be  given  in  a  similar  manner,  and  repeated  again 
and  again,  till  the  pupils  acquire  the  power  to  fix  the 
attention,  at  will,  upon  whatever  point  they  please. 
N"ot  a  word  is  to  be  spoken  during  the  whole  exercise, 
except  the  mere  reading  of  the  question  by  the  teacher, 
or  some  member  of  the  class. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  is  a  purely  mental  ex- 
ercise. It  is  compelling  the  mind  to  take  cognizance 
of  its  own  operations,  which  will  be  found,  at  first,  a 
more  difficult  task  than  a  mere  announcement  of  the 
result,  after  a  brief  survey,  and  then  giving  the  anal- 
ysis orally,  which  is  the  common  mode  of  recitation 
in  mental  arithmetic.  The  former  mode  secures  by 
far  the  greatest  amount  of  discipline.  But  this  will 
be  described  more  fully  under  Recitation. 

Section  2 — Narrative  and  Description. — These 
modes  have  been  briefly  described  under  the  head  of 
Intellectual  Culture,  in  the  Science  of  Education. 
Their  use,  as  means  of  inciting  to  study,  will  be 
further  illustrated  here. 

It  will  be  found  upon  a  careful  analysis  of  the 
modes  and  processes  of  thought,  that  they  continually 
seek  a  tangible  expression.  We  shape  our  thoughts, 
in  some  degree,  after  the  objects  of  nature  and  of  art, 
with  which  we  are  most  familiar.  The  mind  is  con- 
tinually seeking  comparisons,  similes,  metaphors,  etc 


STUDY.  73 

Hence  all  the  figures  of  rhetoric.  This  peculiarity 
obtains  more  strongly  in  the  earlier  stages  of  think- 
ing, as  well  as  in  earlier  stages  of  civilization.  The 
feeble  powers  continually  seek  some  sensible  object, 
through  which,  and  by  which  to  give  expression  to  the 
ideas.  In  other  words,  thinking  is  done  by  the  aid  of 
sensible  objects.  The  simple,  touching,  forcible,  and 
sometimes  almost  sublime  expressions  of  childhood, 
will  abundantly  testify  to  this  fact.  Hence  the  narra- 
tive and  descriptive  modes  are  the  processes  they  em- 
ploy. 

Now  it  is  the  policy  of  every  wise  teacher  to  take 
the  thought,  and  the  mental  strength  already  developed 
in  children,  and  to  use  it  as  a  means  of  acquiring  or  de- 
veloping more,  to  use  the  present  stock  as  a  principal, 
from  which  a  continual  annuity  arises;  for  these 
thoughts,  accurately  expressed  by  their  possessor,  will 
awaken  other  thoughts,  which  become  in  their  turn, 
antecedents  to  others  yet  unborn.  The  advantage  that 
this  exercise  possesses  over  many  others,  is  that  the 
thoughts  must  proceed  in  consecutive  order,  or  the 
beauty  of  the  narrative  or  description  will  be  de- 
stroyed. 

A  plan  like  the  following  might  be  adopted.  Let  a 
certain  portion  of  the  day  be  set  apart, by  general  con- 
sent, as  a  time  in  which  everything  of  importance  which 
occurs,  is  to  be  carefully  noted  in  the  memory,  in  the 
order  in  which  the  several  transactions  take  place. 
These  are  to  be  related  in  the  same  order,  by  the  pupils, 
at  the  appointed  time.  Or  the  whole  day  might  be  ap- 
portioned out  to  the  whole  school,  in  the  same  manner, 
each  one  having  a  certain  allotted  part — the  incidents 

tto  be  reported  at  the  proper  time.     This,  I  apprehend, 
ould  have  a  powerful  effect  upon  the  order  of  the 
m 


74  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

school.  It  should  be  guarded,  however,  from  any 
system  of  espionage.  The  object  is  an  entirely  differ- 
ent one.  Or  the  subject  of  narration  or  description 
may  be  some  particular  incident :  in  all  of  which  cases, 
care  should  be  taken  that  every  thing  be  related  in  its 
proper  order,  and  be  strictly  true. 

An  excursion  after  specimens  in  natural  history 
would  afford  one  of  the  finest  opportunities  for  culti- 
vating this  power  of  observation,  of  attention,  and  of 
the  ability  to  think  in  consecutive  order.  Different 
departments  might  be  allotted  to  different  members, 
one  taking  the  objects  of  one  particular  class,  and 
another,  another.  The  occurrences  and  events  mi^ht 
constitute  another  theme, which  could  be  disposed  of 
in  a  similar  manner.  It  will  be  amusing,  as  well  as 
instructive,  to  listen  to  all  the  minutiae.  If  circum- 
stances are  favorable,  these  things  might  be  committed 
to  writing.  This  will  also  prepare  the  way  for  com- 
position writing,  which  certainly  should  be  preceded 
by  some  exercise,  to  give  or  induce  thoughts,  since  the 
want  of  them  seems  to  be  the  principal  deficiency. 
If  a  child  is  capable  of  telling  a  straight  story,  it  is 
pretty  good  evidence  that  he  has  thought  it  straight 
beforehand,  which  is  just  what  we  want.  And  if  he 
can  think  a  straight  story,  he  may  make  a  ready 
transfer  of  this  power  to  his  books  and  lessons. 

Again  :  Objects  and  places  form  another  class  of  ex- 
cellent exercises  for  this  kind  of  practice.  For  in- 
stance :  an  object  of  some  kind  is  named  or  exhibited 
to  the  class,  and  each  member  is  required  to  give  a 
description  of  it,  including  the  size,  form,  weight, 
color,  and  all  the  properties  belonging  to  it,  including 
history  and  use.  The  object  may  be  a  chair,  a  block 
of  wood,   a   fragment    of   rock,    a   lump    of   earth,  a 


STFDY. 


75 


branch  of  a  tree,  some  part  of  an  animal,  or  it  may  be 
some  kind  of  grain,  fruit  or  flowers  :  what  a  theme  for 
conversation  and  description  opens  up  here!  What 
an  endless  variety  of  them ! 

Places  may  be  the  theme.  In  such  case,  it  may  be 
well  to  commence  with  the  place  occupied  by  the 
pupil,  and  then  advance  to  those  whose  peculiarities 
are  well  remembered,  such  as  the  door-yard  at  home, 
the  garden,  the  orchard,  the  meadow,  the  farm,  the 
neighborhood,  etc.,  etc. :  or  take  the  dwelling-house, 
and  what  a  line  subject  is  offered  in  the  description  of 
the  several  apartments ! 

A  description  of  outline  and  boundary  is  an  excellent 
exercise  for  inducing  thought.  Let  the  simple  out- 
line of  some  well-known  field,  farm  or  forest  be  given 
as  a  lesson  for  description.  Let  a  person  be  supposed 
to  pass  round  it.  The  objects  and  places  passed  or  ap- 
proximated, should  be  named  in  the  consecutive  order, 
commencing  at  a  given  point. 

Way  or  distance  may  be  described  in  the  same  man- 
ner. The  pupils  are  requested  to  note  every  thing 
wTorthy  of  description,  that  they  observe  on  the  road 
to  or  from  school;  or  to  describe  accurately  the  road 
from  their  homes  to  the  school-house  door.  Such  ex- 
ercises will  not  only  make  the  pupils  close  observers  of 
nature  and  art,  but  will  make  them  close  thinkers  and 
describers,  which  latter  acquisition  is  fully  as  valuable 
as  the  former. 

Now  it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  first  efforts  in 
narrating  and  describing,  will  be  rather  rude  and  in- 
definite, which  rudeness  and  indefiniteness  are  suffi- 
cient reasons  in  favor  of  this  practice :  |br  what  is 
our  education  for,  if  not  to  make  us  able  and  exact  ? 
Practice,  however,  will  soon  remove  the  inaccuracies. 


76  THE   ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Let  these  exercises  be  repeated,  day  after  day,  at  reg- 
ular intervals,  in  connection  with  other  duties,  taking 
up  the  topics  in  some  systematic  order,  and  teachers 
will  be  astonished  at  the  accuracy  that  will  in  a  short 
time  be  acquired.  Lessons  will  be  studied  and  recited 
with  ten  times  the  care  and  accuracy  that  would 
obtain,  were  no  such  aids  used.  For,  if  a  pupil  can 
tell  what  occurred  within  a  given  space  of  time,  during 
the  school  hours,  he  can  certainly  study  and  remem- 
ber the  events  and  incidents  recorded  in  his  history 
lesson,  with  greater  ease;  and  if  he  can  describe  the 
one,  he  can  the  other.  If  he  can  describe  the  outline 
and  boundary  of  a  field  or  farm,  with  accuracy,  he 
certainly  can  apply  the  same  to  the  study  of  geogra- 
phy. If  he  can  gather  up,  and  treasure  in  his  mind, 
the  several  incidents  as  they  occur  by  the  wayside ;  if  he 
can  describe  objects  accurately  and  fully,  he  has  al- 
ready taken  the  first  step  in  the  study  of  language. 
He  may,  therefore,  with  greater  ease,  apply  the 
principles  and  rules  of  grammar,  or  follow  the 
solution  of  a  problem  or  the  demonstration  of  a 
theorem. 

Such  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  narration  and 
description ;  but  their  chief  importance,  as  means  of 
inducing  thought  and  study,  can  only  be  estimated  by 
their  use.  A  fuller  description  of  these  modes  will  be 
given  under  the  head  of  Recitation,  in  connection 
with  others,  bearing  more  immediately  upon  that 
subject. 

Section  3 — Direct  Appeals. —  1.  We  shall  now 
proceed  to%  notice  another  class  of  means,  intended 
more  immediately  for  a  grade  of  pupils,  capable  of  ap- 
preciating the  higher  motives,  which  we  shall  endeavor 


STUDY  77 

to  present  in  their  natural  order,  beginning  with  the 
highest. 

It  is  a  well-established  principle  in  ethical  philoso- 
phy, that  a  desire  to  do  right,  simply  because  it  is 
right,  or  from  purely  conscientious  feelings,  ranks,  if 
not  the  highest,  at  least  among  the  highest  motives  of 
human  action.     Hence,  an  appeal  to  conscience  for  a 
faithful  discharge  of  duty  would  be  the  highest  ap- 
peal that  could  be  made.     It  will  be  understood  here, 
that  we  mean  conscience,  as  developed  by  reason,  and 
founded  upon  the  most  exalted  ideas  of  God  and  a 
future  state.     These  appeals  then  become  a  potent  in- 
strumentality, not  only  in  the  discharge  of  the  duty 
itself,  but  in  cultivating  the  conscience. 
.  Motives  of  this  kind,  however,  could  avail  but  little 
with  children  of  the  age  and  advancement  of  those  for 
whom  we  have  been   recommending  the  other   two 
classes  of  means.     It  would  avail   but  little,  for  in- 
stance, to  say  to  a  child  that  could  not  understand  the 
right  clearly,  or  comprehend  the  motive,  or  feel  the 
obligation,  "  Now  you  must  study,  because  it  is  youi 
duty ;  it  is  an  obligation  of  the  highest  possible  force.' 
The  child  thus  addressed,  might  have  no  ill  designs, 
but  on  the  contrary,  the  impulses  might  be  of  a  gen- 
erous  order ;    but   the    force   of  that   appeal   would 
scarcely  be  felt,  simply  for  the  want  of  a  proper  un- 
derstanding and  appreciation  of  it :  and  yet  I  have 
known  teachers  and  ministers  to  talk  to  children  just 
'  as  if  they  could  be  moved  by  the  same  class  of  ap- 
peals which  are  appropriate  for  adults.     Their  lucid 
illustrations  of  right  and  wrong,  would  make  the  chil- 
dren stare,  but  would  leave  them  wondering  at  such 
I  profundity,  or  reproaching  themselves  with   ugliness 
or  stupidity,  when,  in  fact,  the  stupidity,  at  least,  was 


78  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

on  the  other  side.  But  with  a  class  of  pupils  who  are 
capable  of  appreciating  appeals  of  this  nature,  to  con- 
nect their  duties  thus  with  their  highest  destiny,  and 
show  their  intimate  relations  and  certain  dependence, 
would  act  with  a  force  measured  only  by  the  power 
of  conscience. 

2.  The  appeals  to  a  desire  for  usefulness  are  closely  allied 
to  the  appeals  to  conscience.  This  desire,  it  will  be 
seen,  is  purely  a  benevolent  one,  and  the  appeals  to  it 
become,  like  those  to  conscience,  both  the  means  of 
securing  study,  and  of  cultivating  the  desire  itself. 
This  desire,  we  maintain, is  a  natural  one;  for  no  one, 
except  a  fiend,  or  one  greatly  depraved,  could  desire  the 
misery  of  human  beings,  or  even  of  brutes.  We  see 
this  desire  exhibited  among  children  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  in  the  sympathy  they  so  readily  manifest  in 
each  other's  joys  and  sorrows.  When  properly  culti- 
vated, it  leads  them  to  desire  the  welfare  of  all  their 
associates  and  friends,  and  when  more  fully  developed 
ftnd  Christianized,  it  ripens  into  that  holy  ardor  for 
usefulness  that  burns  in  the  bosom  of  the  missionary 
of  the  cross  or  the  true  philanthropist.  This  desire 
will  also  be  found  to  exist  in  various  stages  of  devel- 
opment in  the  minds  of  pupils,  and  often  sadly  min- 
gled with  selfishness.  When,  however,  it  can  be 
shown  that  true  usefulness  depends  upon  faithful- 
ness in  the  discharge  of  duty,  especially  that  of  study  ; 
that  the  power  to  do  good  is  measured  by  development 
and  discipline,  no  healthier  stimulant  can  be  applied. 
It  is  free  from  all  those  excesses  to  which  so  many  of 
the  ordinary  motives  are  subject. 

3.  The  desire  for  happiness  is  another  powerful  mo- 
tive. It  is  intimately  blended  with  the  preceding  one, 
since  usefulness  and  happiness  are  inseparable.     The 


STUDY. 


79 


desire  for  happiness  is  like  the  desire  for  existence 
itself.  It  is  a  universal  desire.  It  pervades  all  ranks, 
ages  and  conditions  in  life  ;  and  it  even  reaches  be- 
yond this  life,  and  becomes  one  of  the  leading  motives 
to  impel  a  preparation  for  the  life  to  come.  It  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  strictly  benevolent,  since  it  seeks 
self-gratification  or  enjoyment;  and  yet  even  this  may 
be  regarded  as  a  species  of  benevolence.  Indeed  it 
becomes  a  very  high  order  of  benevolence  when  it  is 
so  regulated  in  its  actions  as  not  to  mar  the  happiness 
of  others  in  seeking  its  own.  A  purely  enlightened 
selfishness, in  this  sense,  would  lead  a  man  to  do  right; 
for,  since  the  happiness  of  man  depends  upon  the  ful- 
fillment of  the  law  of  love,  or  "to  do  unto  others  as 
ye  would  that  others  should  do  unto  you,"  he  would 
necessarily  seek  the  fulfillment  of  that  law.  The 
amount  of  virtue,  however,  that  such  actions  would 
involve  must  be  determined  from  another  standpoint. 

It  may  be  clearly  shown  that  the  enjoyment  of  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  and  hence  of  the  mind  itself, 
depends  upon  action,  development,  and  discipline  of 
those  faculties;  that  a  lack  of  healthy  activity  would 
impair  the  growth ;  that  a  sickly  development  would 
beget  feeble  enjoyment;  that  imperfect  discipline 
would  involve  precarious  happiness;  and  again,  that 
the  entire  happiness  depends  upon  usefulness,  since, 
according  to  the  well-known  laws  of  mind  and  matter, 
just  as  soon  as  a  man  ceases  to  be  useful  to  his  fellow 
man,  he  ceases  to  be  happy  ;  that  there  is  no  such 
condition  in  the  economy  of  things  as  a  man's  carry- 
ing his  happiness  outside  of  his  usefulness,  since  they 
both  lie  precisely  in  the  same  line ;  and  that  if  he 
loses  the  one, he  loses  the  other  also. 

What  a  merited  rebuke  upon  sordid  selfishness!     If 


80  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

the  poor,  blind  devotee  of  gain,  or  power,  or  pleasure, 
could  but  open  his  eyes  upon  this  path,  how  soon 
would  he  recognize  the  folly  of  his  course  !  God  has 
made  it  impossible  for  any  human  being  to  be  happy, 
outside  the  path  of  duty  and  usefulness ;  and  the 
degree  of  pleasure  is  usually  measured  by  the  devotion 
to  this  course.  What  stronger,  healthier,  higher, 
holier  motives  can  be  employed  in  the  school-room 
than  these  ?  Does  any  one  ask,  "  When  and  how  they 
shall  be  applied  ?"  We  answer,  by  appealing  to  them 
in  every  lesson,  recitation  and  duty,  by  making  every 
word  of  instruction  point  to  this  great  object  of  ex- 
istence. 

4.  The  love  of  approbation  is  a  motive  that  may 
be  gently  plied  in  the  school-room.  The  affections 
which  sometimes  exist,  and  which  should  always 
exist  between  teacher  and  pupil,  can  be  wielded  with 
powerful  certainty  by  those  who  understand  their 
business.  It  exists  in  various  degrees,  from  the  simple 
cold  respect,  up  through  all  the  various  grades  of 
regard,  esteem,  veneration,  reverence,  friendship  and 
love.  The  higher  the  grade  of  affection,  the  more 
potent  the  influence  becomes.  Now,  if  the  pupil  feel 
any  or  all  of  these  generous  emotions  for  the  teacher, 
whatever  of  approbation  he  receives,  will  tell  just  so 
far,  as  a  motive  to  duty ;  and  whatever  of  disapproba- 
tion is  shown,  will  sting  the  conscience  and  self-respect 
to  active  exertions,  to  repair  the  losses  and  regain 
favor. 

But  in  the  use  of  approbation  and  disapprobation, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised.  There  is  great 
danger,  on  the  one  hand,  of  fostering  pride  and  self- 
conceit,  and  a  morbid  desire  for  praise,  which,  if  not 
bestowed,  results  in  jealousy,  envy  and  childish  whims; 


' 


STUDY.  81 

and  on  the  other  hand,  in  discouragement,  petulance, 
and  churlishness.  The  approving  smile  and  look  of 
love  will  do  far  more  to  elevate,  purify  and  stimulate 
the  desires,  than  all  the  fulsome  praise  and  idle  flattery 
that  can  he  bestowed  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  look 
of  sorrow  and  disappointed  hope,  the  gentle  but  earn- 
est reproof,  will  do  more  than  all  the  censorious  fault- 
finding and  angry  threats  that  can  be  employed,  in  the 
government  of  children. 

5.  Self-interest,  as  a  motive  for  study,  is  one  that 
admits  of  two  interpretations.  If  it  is  meant  by  it, 
that  regard  for  self  which  leads  the  individual  to  seek 
his  own  happiness  from  the  highest  sources,  and  with- 
out interfering  with  the  rights  of  others,  or  in  a  man- 
ner described  under  "  Usefulness  and 'Happiness ,"  there 
certainly  can  be  no  objection  to  it.  But,  if  by  self- 
interest,  is  meant  the  mere  gratification  of  selfish  de- 
sires, without  regard  to  the  feelings  or  rights  of  others ; 
or  to  rise  by  pulling  another  down,  or  to  acquire  at 
another's  sacrifice;  or  if  it  be  the  mere  gratification  of 
self  for  self's  sake — it  is  not  only  of  doubtful  utility, 
but  radically  and  unequivocally  wrong. 

The  practice,  therefore,  of  giving  prizes  or  rewards 
of  merit,  can  scarcely  be  free  from  these  objections. 
To  say  the  least  we  can  of  the  principle,  as  usually 
practiced,  it  is  apt  to  engender  an  unwholesome  spirit 
of  rivalry,  to  discourage  the  backward  and  timid,  to 
provoke  jealousies,  to  stimulate  inordinate  ambition; 
and  above  all,  and  worst  of  all,  it  is  setting  a  paltry 
price  on  learning.  The  practice  is  therefore  wrong  in 
principle,  when  it  proposes  to  pay  a  pupil  for  benefit- 
ing himself.  In  accepting,  he  takes  that  for  which 
he  has  rendered  no  equivalent.  He  gets  all  the  bene- 
fits of  study  or  obedience  himself,  and  then  expects 


82  THE    ART    Oi'    TEACHING. 

to  be  paid  for  it  besides.  Too  much  care  can  not  be 
taken  to  teach  children  that  they  should,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, render  an  equivalent  for  every  thing  they  obtain. 
There  can,  however,  be  no  objection  to  giving  tokens 
of  approbation;  but  the  practice  of  holding  out  the 
idea,  that  for  so  much  study,  so  much  pecuniary  re- 
ward will  be  given,  is  at  once  to  degrade  study  or  obe- 
dience in  the  estimation  of  every  right-minded  pupil. 
And  then  again  it  is  accompanied  with  this  diffi- 
culty, that  when  the  incentive  is  removed,  when  there 
are  no  more  rewards  to  be  received,  the  mind  having 
been  fed  on  such  motives,  there  will  remain  no  whole- 
some desire.  It  is  apt  to  cease  to  act,  when  the 
false  stimulant  is  removed.  And  yet  we  will  not  un- 
dertake to  decide,  that  there  can  be  no  system  of 
prize-giving,  free  from  these  objections.  We  will  only 
say  we  do  not  know  of  any. 

6.  Now,  in  conclusion,  allow  us  to  add,  that  it  is  alto- 
gether possible  that  cases  will  arise  in  school,  that 
none  of  these  appeals,  nor  yet  any  of  the  artiiices  here- 
tofore described,  will  effectually  reach.  Such  cases 
are  not  only  supposable,  but  doubtless  have  an  actual 
existence ;  and  it  would  not  be  granting  too  much, 
perhaps,  to  say  that  various  degrees  of  laziness,  stu- 
pidity and  stubbornness  exist  throughout  all  the 
grades  here  described.  But  what  shall  be  the  resort 
in  the  extreme  cases  ?  The  question  is  a  plain  and 
fair  one,  and  is  entitled  to  a  courteous  and  frank  an- 
swer. We  therefore  reply  definitely  and  distinctly, 
that,  when  all  other  means  have  been  exhausted,  or 
where  the  probabilities  are  that  they  would  be  insuffi- 
cient, if  applied,  that  recourse  may  be  had  to  absolute 
compulsion  :  that  forced  obedience  is  better  than  re- 
bellion.   "  What,"  says  one,  "  force  a  child  to  study  ? " 


STUDY.  83 

"  Would  you  force  a  child  that  is  not  hungry,  to  eat  ? " 
No ;  but  I  would  force  a  diseased  person  to  take  med- 
icine or  nourishment,  if  the  disease  were  of  such  a  na- 
ture or  malignity  as  to  deprive  the  patient  of  judg- 
ment and  reason;  provided  that  food  or  medicine 
were  the  prescribed  remedy.  I  would  confine  a  pa- 
tient by  physical  force,  to  submit  to  amputation  of  a 
limb,  if  I  were  satisfied  that  that  course  was  neces- 
sary to  save  his  life:  so  I  would  compel  a  pupil,  on 
the  same  principle,  to  submit  to  study;  for  I  would 
consider  him  dangerously  diseased  mentally,  if  he  could 
refuse  all  the  means  heretofore  described;  and  the 
sooner  treatment  of  this  kind  is  resorted  to,  the  better, 
since  the  disease  is  apt  to  become  aggravated  from 
delay.  But  if  a  dose  of  silent  study,  administered  by 
compulsion,  once  or  twice  a  day,  and  an  occasional 
amputation  of  a  bad  habit  were  performed  skillfully, 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  patient  would  soon 
show  signs  of  convalescence  ;  whereupon  milder  meas- 
ures might  then  be  employed. 

With  these  suggestions,  we  close  the  chapter  on 
Study.  But  before  leaving  it,  it  is  but  just  to  say,  that 
it  is  not  claimed,  by  any  means,  that  the  list  of  mo- 
tives which  may  be  employed  for  teaching  children 
how  to  think,  has  been  exhausted.  The  fact  is,  we 
have  only  just  approached  the  subject.  It  will  be 
found,  also,  that  the  ordinary  means  will  be  sufficient 
for  the  great  majority  of  cases;  that  resort  to  special 
efforts  will  only  be  required  where  special  difficulties 
exist;  and  that  with  proper  study  by  the  teacher, 
upon  these  points,  no  difficulty  can  arise,  but  that  a 
remedy  will  be  suggested. 


84 


tup:  art  of  teaching. 


SYNOPSIS     III. 


OBJECTS 

AND 
MOTIVES. 


To  ascertain  the  extent  of  preparation. 
To  aid  in  understanding  and  retaining. 
To  cultivate  the  expressive  powers  and  regular  habits. 


C 

M 

H 

t 

H 

- 

V 

7 

H 

H 
H 
|3 

q 
g 

c 
c 

s 

c 
c 
r 


CONDITIONS 

AND 
REQUISITES 


PRINCIPLES 

AND 
METHODS. 


r  Recitation  seats. 
Conveniences,  -s   Blackboards  and  maps* 
V.  School  apparatus. 

/    A  thorough  knowledge  on  the  part  of  eachsr 
Qualificat'ns  -;    Preparation  of  lesson  by  the  pupil. 
V.  A  cultivated  voice  and  manner. 

C  Simplicity.     Energy.     Dispatch. 
Specialities.    \  Fidelity.     Patience.    Gentleness. 
V.  Strict  order  and  arrangement. 


-   Completeness.     Definiteness. 
General  Di-    J  Comprehensiveness.     Independence. 

BEC'TIONS.         J 

(_  Answers  given  without  prompting. 


Modes  of  An- 


Modes  of  Con- 
ducting. 


Concert.     Consecutive.     Promiscuous. 
Silent.     Reciprocal.     Proxy 
Monitorial.     Contests.     Writing. 


Interrogative.* 

Topical. 

Didactic. 


f  Subjects. 
(  Diagrams. 

{Conversation. 
Lectures. 


*See  Modes  of  Answering. 


RECITATION.  85 


CHAPTER   III. 

EECITATION. 

We  now  approach  that  mooted  and  much  belabored 
uubject — Recitation:  the  one  which  forms,  perhaps,  the 
great  burden  of  treatises  on  teaching ;  but  which, 
important  as  it  is,  is  entitled  to  no  higher  considera- 
tion than  many  others.  From  the  fact  that  it  has 
long  been  regarded  the  summa  summarium  of  teach- 
ing, its  claims  have  been  considered  paramount  to  all 
others ;  but  upon  a  careful  study  of  these  claims,  and 
a  comparison  of  them  with  some  others,  recitation  in 
many  respects  will  be  found  to  rank  even  below  study. 
For  instance :  recitation  is  an  instrumentality  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  the  teacher;  and  may  be  wielded  by 
him  as  a  powerful  force  in  the  education  of  the  child  ; 
but  study,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  actual  duty,  be- 
longs to  the  child  himself,  and  hence  is  more  direct 
and  potential.  It  constitutes  the  chief  means  of 
learning  and  discipline.  Recitation,  however,  may  do 
much  to  facilitate  study  ;  and  in  this  sense  its  impor- 
tance increases. 

We  shall  proceed  to  examine  this  topic,  first,  with 
reference  to  its  Objects  and  Aims;  secondly,  its  Con- 
ditions and  Requisites ;  thirdly,  its  General  Principles, 
and  their  Application. 

Article  1— The  Object  and  Aims. 

It  will  be  found  that  there  is  a  lamentable  deficiency 
among  teachers,  as  well  as  among  pupils,  in  reference 


8G  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

to  the  objects  of  recitation.  Many  have  taken  no 
further  pains  to  inform  themselves  upon  this  point,  than 
merely  to  acquaint  themselves  with  some  of  the  leading 
modes.  They  take  it  for  granted  that  the  practice  of 
reciting  is  all  right,  of  course,  since  it  is  customary. 
But  the  time  when  it  was  not  customary,  except  in 
a  few  branches, — such  as  reading  and  spelling, — still 
lingers  in  the  memory  of  many  of  the  present  genera- 
tion. But  modern  improvements  have  wiped  out 
many  of  the  old  usages,  and  brought  about  a  radical 
change,  and  with  that  change  many  inconsistencies. 
It  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  in  so 
great  a  revolution,  there  should  obtain  many  errors, 
mostly  of  an  opposite  extreme.  And  so  we  find  it  in 
recitation.  From  the  extreme  of  no  lecitation,  or 
scarcely  none,  we  find  all  recitation,  or  nearly  all. 
From  no  explanations,  it  is  all  explanations;  and  the 
pupil  has  only  to  place  himself  in  the  receptive  attitude, 
and  the  mental  pabulum  is  dealt  out  to  his  taste.  The 
process  of  deglutition  is  scarcely  necessary,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  mastication,  since  the  acquisition  is  made  so 
easy  by  dilution,  as  not  to  require  much  efibrt  on  the 
part  of  the  scholar.  His  delicate  nerves  are  not  to 
be  disturbed  by  any  such  vulgar  process  as  that  of 
thinking.  That  is  already  done  to  his  hand.  The 
processes  of  simplification  have  gone  on,  to  such  an 
extent,  that  the  various  subjects  of  learning  have  be- 
come exceedingly  simple — so  simple  indeed,  in  many 
cases,  as  to  be  absolutely  silly.  But  these  errors  will 
be  noticed  in  due  order  in  the  course  of  this  chapter. 
We  shall  not  attempt  an  exhaustive  list  of  the  ob- 
jects of  recitation,  since  they  are  so  numerous  as  to 
forbid  any  such  effort.  It  is  due  the  subject  to  say 
however,  that  the  knowledge  upon  these  points  should 


RECITATION.  87 

be  very  definite.  Both  the  teacher  and  the  pupil, 
should  know  why  they  recite,  and  the  objects  to  be 
gained  by  the  recitation,  or  the  probabilities  are,  that 
the  lesson  will  neither  be  assigned  nor  studied  in  a 
proper  manner.  Among  the  objects  to  be  kept  before 
the  mind,  while  conducting  a  recitation,  the  following 
may  be  named  : 

1.  To  ascertain  the  extent  of  preparation,  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil.  According  to  the  principle  laid  down 
in  reference  to  "assigning  lessons,"  no  more  labor 
should  be  given,  than  can  be  thoroughly  mastered  by 
the  pupil ;  and  then,  when  time  for  recitation  arrives, 
every  thing  assigned  should  be  demanded,  when  the 
aforesaid  object  can  be  ascertained.  When  a  lesson  is 
assigned  in  a  proper  manner,  the  pupil  is  laid  under 
the  most  binding  obligation  to  prepare  it.  Any  fail- 
ure to  fulfill  that  obligation,  should  be  regarded  as  an 
act  of  willful  disobedience,  and  treated  accordingly. 
Indeed,  I  would  never  suffer  a  pupil  for  any  cause, 
save  that  of  unavoidable  hindrance,  to  enjoy  the  bene- 
fits of  the  recitation,  if  he  had  not  spent  the  required 
amount  of  time  and  effort  in  preparing  the  lesson. 
I  would  at  once  send  him  to  his  seat  as  an  offender. 
1  am  aware  that  this  might  seem  like  a  harsh  meas- 
ure ;  and  yet  what  are  our  recitations  for  ?  Are  they 
to  cover  up  the  faults  and  defects  of  the  pupil,  or  are 
they  to  expose  and  correct  them  ?  Are  they  to  pam- 
per and  indulge  laziness  and  disobedience,  or  are  they 
to  cultivate  habits  of  industry,  and  prompt  and  willing 
obedience? 

A  great  many  pupils  are  accustomed  to  drag  them- 
selves along  in  recitation,  by  depending  upon  their 
neighbors,  or  their  shrewdness  in  guessing,  good  luck 
or  some  other  equally  reprehensible  expedient ;  and 


88  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

sometimes, too,  through  excess  of  assurance,  they  even 
make  a  fairer  show  than  some  others  who  have  been 
diligent  in  the  preparation  of  their  lessons.  But  all 
this  is  wrong — morally  wrong, — since  it  is  lowering 
the  standard  of  industry  and  order,  and  offering  a 
temptation  to  others  to  neglect  their  duties  likewise. 
Such  scholars  should  at  once  be  informed,  that  their 
progress  in  education  is  measured  not  by  their  good 
luck  or  shrewdness  in  evading  its  duties,  but  by  their 
faithful  discharge  of  these  duties. 

It  may  be  asked  by  some,  "  What  shall  be  done 
with  an  offender  who  persists  in  disobeying — one,  for 
instance,  who  would  rather  rejoice  than  do  otherwise 
at  an  opportunity  to  be  released  from  recitation  ? "  To 
this,  I  would  answer,  that  if  the  additional  labor  of 
preparing  and  reciting  two  or  three  lessons  at  once, 
failed ;  and  if  confinement  to  study  or  recitation  dur- 
ing the  hours  of  recess  did  not  work  a  reform,  I  would 
treat  it  as  I  would  any  other  act  of  disobedience  of 
similar  import;  and  I  would  bestow  upon  it  such  a 
punishment  as  would  soon  convince  the  offender,  that 
it  is  no  light  thing  thus  to  trifle  with  duty  and  au- 
thority. 

To  ascertain  how  well  the  lesson  has  been  prepared, 
I  would  have  recourse  to  something  like  the  follow- 
ing. The  class  being  called,  a  question  like  the  fol- 
lowing might  be  asked:  "As  many  as  have  complied 
with  the  conditions  of  study  will  please  to  rise,  or 
manifest  it  by  the  uplifted  hand."  These  conditions 
should  be  well  defined  and  well  understood  before- 
hand. It  may  not  be  necessary  for  all  to  study  the 
same  length  of  time,  or  even  to  go  over  the  lesson  the 
same  number  of  times;  but  there  should  be  a  standard 
for  every  one,  either  individual  or  general,  by  which 


RECITATION.  89 

pupils  are  to  be  guided  in  their  reports;  or  there  might 
be  several  standards,  and  those  who  could  not  reach 
the  first,  might  reach  the  second  or  third,  and  so  on. 

Now  the  next  thing  will  be,  to  test  the  correctness 
of  these  reports  by  actual  examination  or  recitation. 
If  they  prove  correct,  all  well:  if  not,  then  the  pupil 
should  be  called  upon  for  an  explanation.  This  will 
be  making  a  serious  matter  of  recitation,  and  the 
scholars  knowing  that  they  will  be  called  upon  to  re- 
port themselves  thus  accurately,  and  then  be  obliged 
to  submit  to  the  test  of  examination  afterward,  will 
be  less  likely  to  spend  the  time  allotted  to  study,  in 
idleness.  They  will  not  be  over-anxious  to  expose 
themselves,  in  the  presence  of  their  companions  and 
teacher,  in  the  ridiculous  attitude  either  of  deception 
or  failure. 

2.  A  second  object  of  recitation  is,  To  aid  in  a  more 
thorough  understanding  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson. 

The  appositeness  of  this  object  will  be  seen  at  once : 
but  there  are  some  things  belonging  to  it  that  need 
attention.  For  instance:  some  teachers  seem  to  re- 
gard this  as  the  only  object  of  recitation  ;  and  that  it  is 
most  readily  accomplished  by  rendering  the  labor  of 
the  pupil  as  light  as  possible.  Hence  they  make  it  a 
point,  either  through  pride  of  display,  excess  of  good 
nature,  or  a  misdirected  zeal,  to  do  as  much  of  the  re- 
citing themselves  as  possible.  Having,  perhaps,  a  tol- 
erable knowledge  or  understanding  of  the  subject- 
matter  ot  recitation  themselves,  they  seem  to  regard  it 
as  a  sacred  duty  to  lecture  and  explain  the  lesson  all 
away,  leaving  the  pupil  nothing  to  do  but  the  de- 
lightful (?)  task  of  listening  and  learning  (?),  or, 
more    properly    feeding   upon    the    mere    husks    of 

knowledge. 

8° 


90  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

Now  it  has  been  frequently  remarked,  in  the  prog- 
ress of  this  work,  that  the  pupil's  advancement  is 
measured  by  what  he  does  more  than  by  what  tie  hears, 
or  sees  somebody  else  do.  The  teacher,  therefore,  has 
no  more  right  to  deprive  the  scholar  of  his  recitation, 
than  he  has  to  deprive  him  of  his  food  or  clothing; 
and  he  would  be  regarded  as  rather  a  suspicious  char- 
acter, if  he  should  be  caught  plundering  the  chil- 
dren's dinner  basket,  or  purloining  a  convenient  ar- 
ticle of  apparel,  occasionally. 

It  is  proper  to  remark,  however,  in  this  connection, 
that  much  additional  information  may  be  given  dur- 
ing recitation,  aud  it  is  relevant  to  inquire  just  how 
much  assistance  should  be  rendered.  To  this,  we 
would  reply,  that  nothing  should  be  told  directly, 
that  the  pupil  can  find  out  for  himself;  that  the  glory 
of  conquest  belongs  to  him,  by  sacred  right;  that  he 
should  not  be  deprived  of  the  luxury  of  thinking;  but 
that  where  light  can  be  thrown  upon  a  subject,  either 
by  word  or  act  of  the  teacher,  in  the  recitation  are  both 
the  time  and  place,  in  which  to  do  this.  If  difficult 
points  have  been  laid  over  for  future  consideration,  or 
experiment,  the  recitation  affords  the  proper  opportu- 
nity. It  is  one  of  its  special  objects  to  afford  oppor- 
tunity to  dispose  of  these  things  ;  and  all  such  cases 
as  demand  special  attention,  should  be  reserved  for 
recitation. 

3.  Another  important  object  of  recitation  is  "  To  aid 
in  retaining  the  knowledge,  or  cultivating  the  power  of 
memory"  In  this  it  becomes  disciplinary,  as  indeed 
are  all  the  modes  of  recitation,  as  well  as  those  of 
study.  It  is  a  well-known  principle  that  repetition 
aids  the  memory.  The  very  process  itself  serves  to 
fix  facts  and  principles  in  the  mind;  and  at  the  same 


RECITATION.  91 

time  trains  the  pupil  in  the  use  of  language.  This 
matter  is  worthy  of  some  consideration,  since  so  much 
of  the  success  in  learning  depends  upon  the  memory. 
It  is  a  constant  complaint  among  scholars,  that  they 
forget  so  easily.  But  the  memory  was  not  made  to  he 
forgetful,  hut  ready  and  obedient.  It  was  not  made 
to  be  treacherous  any  more  than  the  reason  and  under- 
standing were.  There  is  no  more  necessity  for  forget- 
ting any  thing  that  is  properly  learned,  than  there  is 
for  failing  to  understand  a  thing.  When  people  com- 
plain of  a  bad  memory,  it  is  certain  evidence  of  bad 
treatment,  unless  there  is  a  natural  deficiency,  which 
is  seldom  the  case  where  the  organization  in  other 
respects  is  good. 

The  memory  is  a  true  and  faithful  friend ;  and  it 
only  asks  to  be  treated  with  the  same  consideration 
with  which  other  friends  are  treated,  and  it  will  prove 
as  trusty.  Many  things,  however,  that  are  committed 
to  it,  or  supposed  to  be  committed,  are  disposed  of  so 
carelessly,  that  no  particular  responsibility  rests  any- 
where:  hence  when  the  memory  is  called  upon  to 
report,  it  answers  very  justly  and  innocently,  "  that 
such  and  such  things  never  passed  this  way  ;  or  if  they 
did,  their  stay  was  so  transient,  and  the  acquaintance 
so  slight,  that  no  permanent  impressions  were  made ; 
consequently,  we  are  not  responsible."  It  should, 
therefore,  be  the  especial  object  of  every  recitation,  to 
fix  securely  and  permanently  in  the  mind  every  fact 
and  principle  in  the  lesson. 

4.  The  fourth  and  last  object  that  we  shall  name,  is 
the  cultivation  of  the  expressive  powers.  This  will  be 
inferred  from  what  has  been  said  upon  this  point  in 
other  places.  Perhaps  there  is  no  higher  object  in 
reciting,  than  this.     Recitation  is  the  place  in  which 


92  THE    ART    OE    TEACHING. 

we  should  correct  inaccuracies  of  expression;  vshere 
we  should  cultivate  clearness  and  accuracy,  strength, 
beauty  and  richness  of  language — should  call  out  the 
knowledge  the  pupil  possesses,  in  the  best  possible 
forms  of  expression.  But  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
our  pupils  usually  fail  in  this  part  of  their  duties ;  and 
the  inference  is  just  as  clear  as  the  fact  is  notorious, 
that  the  difficulty  arises,  in  a  great  measure,  from 
careless  and  hasty  recitations.  Teachers  are  too  prone 
to  take  for  granted  that  a  child  knows  a  thing,  either 
because  he  pretends  to,  or  thinks  he  does,  or  makes 
some  half-way,  blundering  answer  that  may  be  tor- 
tured into  a  remote  reference  to  the  point  in  hand. 

But  it  is  not  assuming  too  much  to  say,  that  a  pupil 
does  not  know  a  thing  as  he  ought  to  know  it,  until 
he  can  tell  it  as  he  ought  to  tell  it;  and  it  is  equally 
certain,  that  he  can  not  tell  a  thing  as  he  ought  to  tell 
it,  until  he  knows  it  as  he  ought  to  know  it.  One  of 
the  special  objects  of  recitation,  therefore,  is  to  afford 
time  and  opportunity  for  the  cultivation  of  the  express- 
ive powers.  This  relates  to  clearness,  distinctness, 
and  loudness  of  utterance,  as  well  as  perspicuity  and 
comprehensiveness  of  style.  The  manner  is  of  scarcely 
less  importance,  as  an  educational  object,  than  the  mat- 
ter itself.  They  aid  each  other,  and  are  both  equally 
susceptible  of  cultivation. 

Article  2— Conditions  and  Requisites. 

These  departments  of  the  subject  assume  consider- 
able importance,  when  it  is  remembered  that  they 
involve,  to  some  extent,  the  preparations  and  qualifi- 
cations of  teachers.  A  brief  allusion  must  suffice, 
however,  since  but  one  class  of  qualifications  can  be 


RECITATION.  93 

considered,  and  since  those  of  a  more  general  char- 
acter have  been  discussed  in  former  chapters. 

There  is,  however,  a  class  of  conditions  and  req- 
uisites, to  which  we  propose  to  call  a  brief  attention, 
under  the  head  of  conveniences,  before  considering 
those  which  belong  to  the  teacher.  1.  The  size  of 
the  school-room  is  a  matter  that  ought  to  be  consid- 
ered. Of  course,  it  should  be  ample.  One  of  the 
chief  objections  to  our  present  style  of  building  and 
architecture,  is  a  want  of  room.  Teachers  are  per- 
plexed, discouraged,  and  absolutely  prevented  from 
adopting  some  of  the  best  improvements  in  recitation, 
simply  for  the  want  of  room.  They  can  not  bring 
their  classes  to  the  recitation  seat,  or  dismiss  them 
from  it,  in  any  kind  of  order;  nor  yet  can  they  ar- 
range them  in  convenient  forms  w7hile  there.  Every 
thing  has  to  be  huddled  together,  in  the  most  con- 
fused manner,  in  order  to  afford  space  for  the  occu- 
pants of  the  seats.  A  teacher  in  this  predicament, 
has  about  as  much  chance  to  do  his  duties  well,  as  a 
ship-carpenter  would  have  in  a  cellar-kitchen.  There 
must  be  room, — room  to  breathe,  room  to  walk,  room 
to  stand  and  room  to  talk  ;  room  for  motions  of  body 
and  mind;  for  this  too,  must  have  room.  The  world  is 
wide  enough  and  high  enough  for  all  that  is  on  it,  and 
much  more,  without  crowding.  The  policy  therefore, 
of  huddling  children  together  like  sheep  in  a  pen, 
and  that  too,  for  the  purposes  of  educating  them,  is 
too  much  like  burying  a  few  bushels  of  corn  in  one 
spot,  for  the  purpose  of  planting  it.  It  is  horrible  ! 
Half  the  corn  would  rot  under  such  circumstances; 
and  we  should  hardly  expect  that  the  children  would 
fare  much  better,  in  some  of  our  school-houses.  The 
enormity  is  so  great  that  it  should  not  be  tolerated. 


94  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

There  should  be,  at  least  twenty  square  feet  for  every 
pupil,  which  would  make  our  rooms  from  thirty  to 
forty  feet  square,  or  about  those  dimensions. 

2.  The  form  of  the  room  is  another  condition  that 
increases  or  decreases  the  pleasures  and  benefits  of 
recitation.  It  would  be  impossible,  however,  to  give 
special  directions  here,  that  would  apply  to  the  var- 
ious styles  of  school-furniture,  order  of  seating,  and 
other  conveniences.  The  arrangement  of  the  desks 
and  other  furniture,  should  be  such  as  to  allow  the 
greatest  freedom  of  movement,  and  other  conveniences 
in  reference  to  ventilation,  heat  and  light.  There 
should  also  be  a  large  open  space  or  court,  for  physical 
exercises,  usually  situated  just  in  front  of  the  teacher's 
stand,  and  near  the  recitation  seats.  The  propriety  of 
this  arrangement  will  be  seen,  when  we  come  to  speak 
more  directly  of  modes  of  reciting. 

3.  Recitation  seats  are  necessary,  as  we  have  inti- 
mated above.  A  school-room  without  them  would 
be  like  a  dry-goods  store  without  a  counter.  When 
an  examination  of  the  goods  is  to  be  made,  the 
customer  is  obliged  to  visit  all  the  shelves  and 
drawers,  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  all  parties. 
So,  when  the  members  of  a  class  for  recitation  have 
to  be  arranged,  one  in  one  part  of  the  room,  and 
another  in  another,  their  attention  is  correspondingly 
distracted ;  and  the  teacher's  force  is  often  expend- 
ed in  fruitless  efforts  to  collect  and  concentrate  the 
scattered  fragments  of  mind,  that  this  arrangement 
has  a  tendency  to  dissipate. 

4.  As  a  general  thing,  the  recitation  demands  black- 
boards, maps,  globes,  charts  and  other  apparatus. 
The  first  of  these  are  so  necessary,  that  no  teacher  can 
do  without  them.     One  should  occupy  a  position  near 


RECITATION.  95 

the  teacher's  stand,  and  fronting  the  class,  so  that  ex- 
planations maj  be  given  with  as  little  inconvenience 
as  possible.  The  others,  for  the  use  of  the  class,  might 
occupy  all  the  space  between  windows  and  doors,  not 
needed  for  the  cabinet  of  "common  things,"  but  as 
convenient  to  the  recitation  seats  as  possible ;  and 
they  should  be  ample  enough  to  allow  twenty  pupils 
to  operate  upon  them  at  the  same  time. 

The  use  of  maps,  globes  and  other  apparatus  will 
be  readily  inferred,  and  is  best  learned  from  actual 
observation  and  practice.  They  add  much  to  the  in- 
terest and  benefits  of  recitation,  since  they  render 
tangible  many  things  that  otherwise  appear  difficult 
and  abstruse. 

5.  For  small  children,  a  cabinet  of  common  things, 
composed  of  collections  of  as  many  of  the  objects 
from  the  three  great  kingdoms  of  nature,  as  can  be 
procured,  together  with  artificial  objects,  pictures  and 
models  of  those  that  can  not  be  had,  forms  the  best 
conditions  and  requisites  to  their  peculiar  mode  of 
recitation  and  study,  that  can  be  devised.  The  object- 
lessons  described  in  another  place,  demand  these. 

6.  Previous  preparation  by  the  pupil,  is  a  requisite 
which  has  been  alluded  to  in  another  place.  No  pupil, 
therefore,  should  presume  upon  his  ability  to  recite 
the  lesson,  without  having  assured  himself  of  that 
fact,  by  careful  study  beforehand. 

7.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  lesson  by  the 
teacher,  is  a  condition  of  the  first  importance.  He 
should  know,  before  the  class  is  called,  what  the  lesson 
is,  and  what  is  in  it.  The  mode  of  assigning  it  will 
aid  much  in  this  respect;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
the  lesson  should  be  carefully  reviewed  by  the  teacher, 
on  the  previous  day.     Other  text-books  beside  the  one 


96  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

used,  should  also  be  consulted;  for  there  is  great 
danger  of  his  becoming  opinionated  and  circumscribed 
in  his  views,  unless  he  is  accustomed  to  take  liberal 
surveys  of  men  and  things.  This  will  also  give 
greater  freshness  and  accuracy  to  wThat  is  taught,  to 
say  nothing  about  the  collateral  matter  with  which  he 
may  enliven  the  exercise. 

No  teacher  should  presume  to  hear  a  class  recite,  in 
the  common  branches  at  least,  where  he  is  compelled 
to  hold  a  book  in  his  hand  to  guide  or  prompt  him, 
either  in  the  questions  or  answers.  Unfortunately,  in 
man}T  of  the  text-books,  the  questions  which  the 
author  thinks  ought  to  be  asked  (a  presumption  on 
his  part  without  much  foundation),  are  placed  in  the 
margin  of  the  page,  or  interspersed  for  greater  con- 
venience (?)  through  the  entire  lesson.  Now,  if  the 
teacher  is  compelled  to  resort  to  these  questions,  he 
becomes  a  mere  parasite.  He  teaches  merely  with  a 
reflected  light;  and  often  the  orb  whose  rays  he  bor- 
rows, is  a  feeble  one.  Judge  then  of  the  feebleness 
of  the  light  he  sheds.  He  becomes  to  the  pupil  what 
the  moon  is  to  the  earth,  a  pale,  sickly  orb,  whose 
light  is  only  the  faint  reflections  of  the  sun.  It  might 
shine  upon  the  earth  for  a  million  of  years,  and  never 
cause  one  single  bud  to  start,  or  flower  to  bloom,  or  a 
spire  of  grass  to  grow.  The  earth  would  grow  colder 
and  colder  all  the  time,  just  as  some  scholars  do,  intel- 
lectually and  morally,  under  this  second-hand  teaching. 
But  it  is  the  sun,  the  warm,  mild,  yet  energizing  rays 
of  the  sun,  that  penetrate  the  bosom  of  nature,  and 
cause  her  great  heart  to  beat  with  emotions  of  life 
and  joy.  So  with  the  true  teacher:  he  should  shine 
with  no  reflected  light;  he  should  warm  with  no  bor- 
rowed heat;    but    should   vitalize   every   principle  of 


'     RECITATION  97 

intelligence  in   the  child  with  his  own  native-born 
vigor. 

If  the  teacher  is  allowed  to  consult  the  book  in 
presence  of  the  scholars,  during  the  recitation,  for  the 
purpose  of  asking  the  questions,  or,  as  it  frequently 
happens,  of  refreshing  his  memory  on  the  answer,  I 
see  no  good  reason  why  the  pupil  should  not  have  the 
same  privilege.  But  whether  he  has  such  a  right  or 
not,  he  is  very  apt  to  take  it;  since  the  absence  of  the 
teacher's  eye,  in  chase  after  his  question  or  answer, 
offers  a  fine  opportunity  for  the  scholar  to  take  that 
liberty;  and  he  will  be  possessed  of  more  than  the 
ordinary  share  of  virtue,  for  such  a  school,  and  with 
such  a  teacher,  whose  every  act  gives  the  lie  to  Ms  pro- 
fession, if  he  will  not  improve  it. 

The  teacher  should  have  the  lesson  and  all  its  bear- 
ings well  fixed  in  mind,  before  recitation  commences; 
so  that  he  may  deal  out  as  occasion  demands,  and  not 
be  perplexed  or  embarrassed  with  hunting  up  ques- 
tions and  answers  during  recitation.  He  needs  all  the 
mind  with  which  he  is  favored,  to  direct  the  recitation, 
even  if  he  is  perfectly  familiar  with  it,  without  hav- 
ing to  chase  it  up,  or  borrow  it,  as  he  goes  along, 
md,  at  the  same  time,  watch  a  set  of  unruly  scholars 
that  may  be  nearly  as  bad  in  this  respect  as  he  is 
dm  self. 

There  is  another  evil  practice  that  deserves  notice  in 
:his  connection:  it  is  that  of  marking  off  a  certain 
>ortion  of  the  text,  or  so  much  of  it  as  is  supposed 
rill  satisfy  the  question.  Neither  scholar  nor  teacher 
should  be  allowed  to  indulge  in  this  whim,  since  it 
Lestroys  all  connection  of  the  subject,  and  gives  the 
mowledge,  if  it  gives  any  at  all,  in  piecemeal.  If  the 
ixt-book  needs  any  abridging,  it  should  be  done  by 


98  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

general  consent  of  the  profession,  and  not  mutilated 
by  every  bungler  that  sees  proper  to  tinker  at  it,  and 
hack  it  to  pieces. 

8.  A  cultivated  voice  and  manner,  are  requisites 
of  the  first  importance.  This  qualification  applies,  of 
course,  to  both  teacher  and  pupil.  The  powers  of  the 
human  voice,  as  well  as  its  mechanism,  are  most  re 
markable.  Its  tones  may  soothe  the  wildest  passions 
to  rest,  or  rouse  them  into  a  flame.  They  may  wake 
the  purest  and  loftiest  desires,  or  provoke  the  very 
demon  of  hate.  There  is  no  gift  to  mortals,  save  that 
of  mind  itself,  whose  interpreter  the  voice  is,  that  pos- 
sesses such  wonderful  properties.  Its  meek,  subdued, 
and  paftient  strains  are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
harsher  tones  of  petulance,  anger  or  revenge,  not  only 
by  man  himself,  but  by  beast,  bird  and  reptile.  If  joy 
gladden  the  heart,  and  sparkle  in  the  eye,  the  tones 
of  the  voice  swell  out  in  sweet  liquid  strains,  or  in 
merry  shouts.  If  sorrow  depress  it,  the  mournful 
cadence  tells  of  the  grief  within.  If  joy  and  holy 
desires  swell  it,  the  deep  music  of  its  earnest  tones 
awake  the  loftiest  emotions  of  the  soul.  If  hatred, 
and  diabolic  rage  lurk  in  its  secret  chambers,  the 
rough,  dry,  sharp,  sudden,  half- formed  intonations 
grate  like  saws  or  files  upon  the  delicate  sensibilities. 
If'  deceit,  guile  and  hypocrisy  harbor  there,  the  tell- 
tale voice  is  sure  to  reveal  the  fact.  If  treachery, 
cowardice  and  guilt,  its  very  accents  speak  it  all.  If 
fidelity,  bravery  and  innocence,  the  noble,  manly 
tones  of  the  voice  speak  the  sentiments  within.  A 
man  need  not  tell  that  he  is  heroic,  highminded  and 
pure;  his  voice  and  manner  reveal  it  all :  nor  yet  need 
he  strive  to  conceal  his  meanness  of  purpose1,  his  little 
soul,  his  base  designs  and  cowardly  spirit ;  for  lo  !  his 


RECITATION.  99 

voice,  true  to  the  instincts  of  nature,  has  stamped  him 
with  his  true  value. 

The  voice  is  the  harp  of  the  soul ;  the  music  it  plays 
is  the  exponent  of  the  inner  life;  and  the  world's  ears 
the  interpreters  of  the  song.  I  know  that  hypocrisy 
may  be  "skilled  to  grace  a  devil's  purpose  with  an 
angel's  face;"  and  that  the  tones  of  the  voice  may 
affect  the  purity  and  sweetness  of  the  dulcet,  when  the 
most  fiendish  designs  inspire  it;  but  these  designs  can 
not  be  long  concealed ;  for  the  voice,  in  its  own  machi- 
nations, will  betray  to  one  skilled  in  human  nature 
(and  children  are  no  mean  judges  in  the  art)  the  most 
subtle  and  determined  efforts.  I  know  too,  that  many 
a  noble  purpose  is  misjudged  and  defeated  for  the 
want  Of  culture  of  voice  and  manner,  but  this  only 
argues  more  strongly  the  necessity  of  cultivation.  It 
therefore  becomes  the  teacher,  above  all  other  persons, 
since  he  deals  with  the  young,  since  his  voice  is  con- 
tinually sounding  in  the  ear  of  childhood,  to  cultivate 
that  voice  to  the  highest  possible  degree  of  excellence ; 
to  cultivate  it  not  to  dissembling,  not  to  sycophancy ; 
but  to  give  the  true  utterance  and  potency  to  the  pure 
thoughts  and  sentiments  within. 

There  are  four  things  that  should  be  kept  in  mind 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  voice:     1.  The  naturalness  of 
the  voice.     2.  Its  quantity,or  loudness.     3.  Its  quality, 
>r  pitch.     4.  Its  variety, or  flexibility. 

1.  Some  teachers  seem  to  think  it  necessary  to 
iddress  their  pupils  in  an  assumed  voice  and  manner — 
in  some  affected,  dignified  or  commanding  tone, 
scarcely  any  thing  will  sooner  render  such  teachers 
'idiculous  in  the  estimation  of  the  shrewd  and  ob- 
lerving.  ~No  assumed  voice  or  manner  should  ever  be 
:olerated  in  the  school-room.   Of  course,  if  there  are 


100  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

natural  deficiencies  in  the  voice,  these  should  be  cor- 
rected ;  if  there  are  obstructions,  these  should  be 
removed  ;  but  this  can  all  be  done,  without  interfering 
with  or  destroying,  in  the  least,  the  naturalness  of  the 
voice,  but  rather  rendering  it  more  natural.  Let  the 
teacher,  therefore,  use  his  own  voice,  but  make  that 
voice  as  perfect  as  possible. 

2.  Many  teachers  are  in  the  habit  of  speaking  too 
loud.  This  arises  more  from  habit  than  from  any 
thing  else.  I  remember  that  I  once  visited  a  school  of 
some  reputation,  in  which  the  teacher  was  addicted 
to  this  fault.  I  was  invited  to  take  a  seat  upon  the 
stand,  to  listen  to  a  recitation  in  geography.  The 
members  of  the  class  were  called,  and  took  their  seats 
within  six  feet  of  the  teacher's  desk.  All  things  being 
in  readiness,  the  teacher  arose,  and,  having  naturally 
a  stentorian  voice,  he  pronounced  the  first  question 
with  such  startling  loudness  that  I,  supposing  him  to 
be  in  jest,  began  to  laugh.  But  I  soon  found  out  my 
mistake.  I  was  sadly  out  of  order.  The  sober  faces 
that  confronted  me  from  every  quarter,  and  the  earnest 
demeanor  of  the  teacher,  soon  convinced  me  that  it 
was  all  in  sober  earnest.  Question  after  question 
followed,  in  such  thundering  peals,  that  I  began  to 
seek  for  an  explanation  by  supposing  some  to  be  deaf. 
But  this  supposition  was  soon  abandoned,  for,  when 
addressing  the  pupils  on  other  points,  the  teacher 
dropped  his  voice  down  to  a  moderate  tone.  And 
what  was  still  more  surprising,  the  pupils  in  answering 
the  questions  were  about  as  far  on  the  opposite  ex- 
treme. The  contrast  was  most  striking  and  amusing. 
First,  there  was  an  almost  deafening  scream  which,  I 
am  confident,  could  have  been  heard  a  half  mile,  and 
then  the  response  would  come  in  a  faint  whimper, 


RECITATION.  101 

which,  both  taken  together,  reminded  one  of  the 
deafening  roar  of  the  lion,  followed  by  the  faint  squeak- 
ing of  mice. 

Now,  no  one  need  be  told  that  this  is  wrong.  The 
children's  ears,  in  this  instance,  however,  seemed 
hardened  to  it,  so  that  it  produced  apparently  little 
or  no  sensation,  except  a  slight  scowl  which  showed, 
doubtless,  the  remains  of  an  ancient  sensation,  such  as 
I  experienced.  And  thus  it  is.  If  it  should  thunder 
all  the  time  in  continuous  roar,  we  should  cease  to 
notice  it.  It  would  fail  to  produce  an  impression. 
It  would  be  just  as  if  it  did  not  thunder  at  all. 
The  teacher,  therefore,  who  expects  to  make  an  im- 
pression with  the  powers  of  his  voice,  should  re- 
member that  it  consists  more  in  the  richness  of  its 
tones,  and  in  pleasing  and  appropriate  variety,  than 
in  either  pitch  or  power.  The  teacher  is  very  apt  to 
err  in  excess  of  loudness,  for  as  he  warms  in  his 
subject,  the  animation  unconsciously  leads  him  into 
loud  and  boisterous  talking.  Let  him  remember, 
however,  that  a  teacher  can  be  animated  without 
being  boisterous;  and  that  the  tones  of  his  voice  can 
be  impressive  without  being  loud. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  teacher  should 
speak  sufficiently  loud,  and  with  sufficient  animation 
to  be  heard  and  felt  by  all  who  may  be  listening.     A 
lazy,  dull  and  lifeless  teacher,  has  no  business  to  work 
with  children.     He  might,  however,  be  of  some  ser- 
vice where  a  soporific  is  needed  ;  but  where  minds 
are  to   be   energized,  thoughts  to  be  developed,  and 
general  activity  to  be  induced  and  directed,  something 
Lore  is  needed  than  the  prosy  cogitations  of  a  drone, 
'he  teacher  must  be  himself,  in  actions  and  thoughts, 
rhat   he  would   have   his   pupils  become. 


102  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

3.  Another  fault  to  which  teachers,  especially  fe- 
males, are  liable,  that  of  choosing  too  high  a  key  upon 
which  to  speak.  This,  when  accompanied  with  loud- 
ness and  boisterousness,  as  it  is  most  likely  to  be,  be- 
comes exceedingly  disagreeable.  I  have  seen  a  whole 
school  wrought  up  to  a  pitch  of  the  most  unhappy 
feeling,  just  by  the  harsh,  squeaking,  cat-like  voice  of 
the  teacher.  Mischief,  uneasiness,  discontent  or  stolid 
indifference  was  visible  upon  almost  every  face.  No 
one  seemed  to  know  why  he  felt  unhappy.  No  one 
suspected  the  instrument  of  torture  ;  yet  all  felt  it. 
Mischief  and  rebellion  seemed  rife;  and  the  teacher's 
voice,  threats  or  entreaties  were  so  far  from  having  any 
tendency  to  allay  this  feeling,  that  they  only  aggravated 
it.  But  let  the  rich,  subdued,  mellow,  lute-like  tones 
of  voice,  inspired  by  the  deep,  solemn  earnestness  of 
the  soul,  fall  upon  those  ears,  and  a  change  will  come 
over  the  spirit  of  their  feelings.  You  can  almost  see 
the  tears  start  to  their  eyes.  These  sweet  tones  are 
the  melody  of  the  soul,  and  they  touch  the  soul, 
which  yields  responsive  to  their  wooing.  If  teachers 
could  only  estimate  the  mischief  and  unhappiness  their 
tones  of  voice  inspire,  they  would  be  astonished ;  and 
if  they  could  only  realize  a  tenth  part  of  the  good  they 
might  accomplish,  they  would  at  once  set  about  cul- 
tivating this  powerful  instrument  of  good  or  evil. 

4.  Variety  is  a  quality  of  voice,  that  should  be  cul- 
tivated. A  teacher  who  talks  upon  all  topics  with 
about  the  same  degree  of  force,  and  on  the  same  key, 
soon  becomes  monotonous,  and  will  lose  both  the 
power  to  make  impression  and  to  control  his  school. 
There  are  occasions  that  demand  the  loud,  terrible 
tones  that  shake  the  very  soul ;  and  then  from  that 
on  down,  through  all   the  pleasing   varieties,  to   the 


RECITATION.  103 

gentlest  murmur  that  falls  upon  the  eai,  like  the 
sweet  zephyr.  There  are  occasions  too,  that  demand 
the  deep,  solemn,  awful  gravity,  that  searches  the 
very  depths  of  the  heart ;  and  on  from  that  to  the 
tripping  merriment  and  humorous  glee,  that  shake 
the  very  sides  with  laughter.  All  these  varieties  are 
necessary,  and  will  constitute  one  of  the  teacher's 
strongest  forces,  both  in  governing  and  in  teaching. 

There  is  still  another  quality  which  properly  belongs 
to  requisites,  though  it  refers  more  to  the  language 
itself,  than  to  vocalization.  We  mean  the  style  of 
expression.  This  may  include,  in  addition  to  what 
has  already  been  said,  clearness,  distinctness,  simpli- 
city and  purity.  We  propose  nothing  further  here, 
than  a  bare  allusion  to  these  properties,  and  simply  to 
urge  upon  the  student  the  necessity  of  studying 
them  from  some  of  our  best  authors. 

Many  teachers,  in  their  efforts  to  use  good  language, 
overreach  the  matter,  making  use  of  terms  in  explana- 
tion, which  are  really  more  difficult  to  comprehend, 
than  the  things  they  were  intended  to  explain.  All 
definitions  should  be  plainer  than  the  things  delined, 
or  they  cease  to  be  definitions.  All  explanations 
should  be  couched  in  language  precise  and  definite, 
and  not  difficult  of  comprehension. 

Some  again,  are  very  careless  in  their  use  of  lan- 
guage, not  unfrequently  making  use  of  expressions, 
not  only  of  doubtful  signification,  but  often  mean- 
ing the  opposite  from  what  they  intend.  Their  lan- 
guage lacks  perspicuity.  Others  again,  have  a  labored 
style, and  fail  to  render  themselves  intelligible  for  the 
want  of  simplicity  and  purity.  While  I  would  not 
contend  that  the  teacher  should  descend  to  the  level 
with   his  pupils   in   the  use  of  language,  or  that   he 


104  THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 

should  resort  to  the  mere  common-place  expressions, 
and  never  strive  to  elevate  and  purify  their  language; 
yet  I  would  have  him  make  use  of  no  terms  or  ex- 
pressions, in  his  explanations,  which  the  pupil  can  not 
readily  comprehend.  I  would  have  his  language 
plain  without  boldness,  exact  without  stiffness,  rich 
without  superfluity,  elegant  without  affectation,  pure 
without  poverty,  simple  without  being  silly,  and  child- 
like without  being  childish. 

The  manner  and  personal  appearance  of  the  teacher 
have  much  to  do  with  his  success,  and  hence  are  re- 
quisites to  be  considered  in  this  connection.  We  shall 
speak,  however,  of  those  only  which  concern  recitation. 

The  foundation  of  all  good  manners  is  a  good  heart, 
without  which  all  outside  culture  seems  to  be  thrown 
away,  since  it  is  often  used  to  cover  up  wicked  designs, 
and  to  dress  vice  in  a  most  attractive  garb.  But  the 
good  heart  without  the  good  manners  is  often  inca- 
pable of  exerting  a  good  influence,  from  that  very 
fact.  Therefore  the  personal  appearance  and  the  de- 
meanor of  the  teacher  should  be  as  attractive  as 
possible,  since  his  influence  for  good  is  often  lost,  not 
only  from  a  repulsive  air  and  demeanor,  but  from  a 
want  of  neatness,  cleanliness  and  appropriateness  in 
style  of  dress,  etc.  But  a  bare  allusion  to  those  points 
must  suffice  here,  since  we  propose  to  speak  only  of 
recitation.  They  have  been  pretty  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed in  the  popular  treatises  of  the  day. 

We  remark,  therefore,  that  the  manner  in  recitation 
should  be  guarded  from,  at  least,  two  extremes,  viz. : 
too  great  reserve  on  the  one  hand,  and  too  great 
familiarity  on  the  other.  Perhaps  more  err  in  the 
first  direction  than  in  the  second.  Some  teachers  get 
the  idea  that  in  order  to  be  dignified  they  must  affect 


RECITATION.  105 

and  air  of  dignity,  when  in  fact  nothing  is  more  de- 
structive to  true  dignity.  It  will  soon  render  them 
ridiculous.  Then  again,  the  cold  reserve  which  some 
teachers  assume,  when  communicating  with  their 
pupils,  is  utterly  destructive  of  that  sympathy  which 
is  indispensable  to  good  teaching.  Such  teachers 
repel  rather  than  attract,  and  freeze  the  feeling  and 
thoughts,  rather  than  warm  them  into  life.  True 
earnestness  and  honesty  are  the  foundation  stones  of 
true  dignity ;  for,  whenever  a  teacher  becomes  too 
solicitous  about  his  dignity,  he  is  apt  to  lose  it.  Take 
care  of  the  children  and  the  teaching,  and  let  the 
dignity  take  care  of  itself. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  too  great  familiarity  is  shown, 
the  pupil  soon  loses  a  proper  respect  for  the  teacher. 
It  is  not  necessary,  however,  for  him  to  descend  to  any 
low  familiarity,  in  order  to  secure  the  confidence  and 
love   of  children.      Indeed   they  usually  become  sus- 
picious of,  or  hold  in  absolute  contempt,  any  mock 
sympathy  or  forced  familiarity.     He  should,  therefore, 
manifest  on   all  occasions   no  more  interest  in  their 
welfare,  and  no  more  willingness  to  sympathize  with 
and  assist  them  in  their  duties,  than  he  really  feels. 
Let  him  rather  show  by  his  actions  that  his  goodness 
exceeds  his  professions,  if  he  would  exercise  an  un- 
limited sway  over  the  hearts  and  minds  of  his  pupils. 
This  continual  fussing  with  and  flattering  of  children, 
ire  detrimental  both  to  mind  and  morals,  while  a  mock 
sympathy  will  deepen  and  settle  the  convictions  of 
lishonesty  in  them ;  and  to  run  at  the  beck  of  every 
iupil  and  assist  him  whenever  his  whims  may  demand 
it,  will  not  only  make  a  slave  of  the  teacher,  but  will 
lestroy  all  the  self-reliance  and  manly  independence 
>f  the  pupil. 


106  THE    AHT    OF    TEACHING. 

The  teacher  should  avoid  all  rough  and  coarse  ex- 
pressions in  class,  all  ambiguous  and  unchaste  allusions, 
or  anything  that  may  be  construed  into  vulgarity, 
or  lead  to  bad  inferences.  His  intercourse  should  be 
that  of  a  gentleman,  without  forced  pretensions,  and 
his  refinement  should  be  of  the  highest  and  purest 
order.  He  should  also  avoid  all  bodily  postures  and 
gestures  that  partake  either  of  waggishness  or  of  fop- 
pishness, such,  for  instance,  as  sitting  with  feet 
elevated  upon  the  stove  or  desk.  The  place  for  the 
feet  is  on  or  near  the  floor ;  and  they  are  sadly  out 
of  place  when  they  stray  to  other  positions.  Some 
teachers  again,  seem  greatly  at  a  loss,  unless  their 
hands  are  busied  either  with  pen,  pencil,  knife,  or 
possibly  toying  with  a  button,  while  engaged  in 
recitation.  While  I  would  not  urge  that  the  teacher 
put  himself  in  a  straight  jacket  during  recitation, 
yet  he  should  avoid  the  habits  alluded  to,  as  much  as 
possible.  He  should  have  control  of  his  body  as  well 
as  his  mind. 

Most  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  teacher 
have  been  alluded  to  in  different  parts  of  this  work. 
We  refer  to  some  of  them  in  this  connection, for  the 
purpose  of  showing  their  application  in  recitations. 

1.  Order  and  arrangement.  Every  one  must  have 
noticed  that  some  teachers  accomplish  a  great  deal 
more  than  others  in  the  same  length  of  time.  They 
do  not  seem  to  be  in  a  hurry ;  yet  everything  moves 
with  certainty  and  precision.  No  false  steps  are  taken 
to  be  retraced,  and  every  stroke  tells.  Others  again 
are  continually  in  the  midst  of  business  and  excite- 
ment. They  are  pressed  beyond  measure.  They  are 
in  furious  haste,  but  do  not  seem  to  accomplish  much. 
Now  the  simple  difference  is  this:   the  first  have  order 


RECITATION.  107 

and  arrangement, which  they  carry  into  the  recitations; 
others  lack  these  qualities.  The  first  dispose  of  one 
piece  of  business  before  they  commence  another ; 
the  others  have  a  dozen  things  on  hand  at  once,  all 
calling  loudly  for  attention ;  and  the  poor,  distracted 
beings  fly  from  one  to  the  other,  without  the  ability  to 
concentrate  their  forces  anywhere. 

2.  Energy  and  Dispatch  are  characteristics  that 
ought  never  to  be  separated.  Both  classes  of  teachers 
above  described,  possess  energ}T ;  but  the  distinctions 
are  sufficiently  obvious.  Energy,  without  boisterous- 
ness,  and  dispatch  without  haste  or  confusion,  should 
mark  all  the  movements  of  the  teacher. 

3.  Honesty  and  Fidelity.  The  occasions  for  dishon- 
esty in  recitation,  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and 
pupil,  are  very  numerous.  Some  of  these  have  already 
been  noticed.  It  is  sufficient,  perhaps,  to  add  that 
any  thing  like  deception  in  recitation,  has  a  tendency 
to  lower  the  standard  of  morality,  and  to  breed  con- 
tempt in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  and  teacher,  for  each 
other.  If  a  mistake  has  been  made  by  either  party, 
duty,  honesty,  morality  and  policy  demand  that  it  be 
frankly  and  candidly  corrected,  and  as  publicly  as  it 
was  committed.  If  the  teacher  is  so  unfortunate  as 
not  to  understand  a  thing,  the  moment  he  is  called 
upon  for  information  or  explanation,  it  is  certainly  no 
dishonor  for  him  to  say  so.  Nothing  will  be  lost,  but 
much  gained  in  the  end  by  telling  the  truth.  Lying 
is  monstrous,  and  always  out  of  order.  There  never 
was  an  occasion  for  it,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  there  never 
will  be.     JSTot  the  remotest  good  can  come  of  it,  be 

K:ause  the  whole  universe  is  opposed  to  it.  The  very 
aws  of  mind  and  matter  are  predicated  upon  the  su- 
)remacy  of  truth,  and  they  rebel  at  falsehood.     What 


108  THE    ART    OE    TEACHING. 

good,  even  the  remotest,  then,  can  come  from  violating 
these  laws?  To  pretend,  either  by  word  or  by  infer- 
ence, to  know  a  thing  when  ignorant  of  it,  to  put  off  the 
scholar  with  the  plea,  "  I  did  know  it,  but  forgot,"  or 
"  I  have  not  time  now,"  or  "Wait  till  to-morrow; "  or 
to  attempt  to  palm  off  an  error  upon  tnem,  to  screen 
ourselves  from  blame;  or  to  hide  our  ignorance  behind 
a  multitude  of  words,  argues  a  state  of  depravity  too 
low  to  be  tolerated  in  the  teacher  for  a  moment.  The 
state  of  public  and  of  private  morals  will  never  improve 
until  teachers  and  parents  learn  to  tell  the  truth,  and 
teach  their  children  the  same  lesson.  I  would  not 
make  a  confessional  of  the  school,  for  I  think  it  has  a 
higher  mission  to  perform  ;  neither  would  I  make  it 
an  instrument  for  instilling  falsehood  and  deceit  in 
the  minds  of  the  young. 

4.  Integrity  and  Fidelity  in  the  discharge  of  duty,  are 
other  matters  of  great  importance  to  teachers.  It  is 
not  an  uncommon  thing  for  teachers  to  make  large 
promises  to  pupils,  either  by  way  of  encouragement,  or 
to  rid  themselves  from  present  obligation,  without  the 
remotest  prospect  of  ever  meeting  them.  Children,  in 
their  innocence  of  the  faithlessness  that  obtains  in 
higher  (?)  circles,  expect  the  fulfillment  of  these,  and 
their  sense  of  right  and  wrong  is  shocked  if  they  are 
not  fulfilled.  It  is  a  notorious  custom  also,  for  teach- 
ers to  threaten  and  banter  with  their  pupils.  This  is 
not  only  a  shameful  impropriety,  however  thought- 
lessly it  may  be  committed,  but  a  sin  of  most  disas- 
trous consequences.  It  is  sufficient  for  the  present  to 
say,  that  teachers  have  no  right  to  elevate  the  hopes 
or  to  excite  the  fears  of  their  pupils,  needlessly.  This 
practice,  however,  soon  fails  to  do  either;  but  the  im- 
moral tendencies,  which  may  be  easily  inferred  by  the 


RECITATION.  109 

reader,  are  still  worse.  Nothing,  therefore,  should  be 
promised  that  can  not  be  performed,  or  delayed  that 
can  be  done  now;  and  no  threats  at  all  should  be 
made.  Threats  and  promises,  for  the  most  part,  are 
out  of  place  in  the  school-room.  The  ready-pay  system 
works  better  both  ways. 

5.  Gentleness  and  Patience  are  in  constant  demand. 
Gentleness,  with  refinement,  is  a  virtue  of  such  capti- 
vating merits,  that  it  commends  itself  to  the  regard  of 
all.  In  this  sense  it  is  the  opposite  of  violence  and  vul- 
garity. What  the  sunshine  and  rain-drops  are  to  flow- 
ers, gentleness  is  to  the  heart  of  childhood.  It  winds 
its  certain  way  into  the  affections  of  youth,  and  even 
into  the  corrupt  and  depraved  nature  of  the  dissolute 
and  abandoned.  It  stirs  the  fountains  of  love  in  the 
one  and  opens  the  door  of  repentance  to  the  other. 
Nothing  seems  more  out  of  place  than  harsh  and  bru- 
tal treatment  of  children.  But  there  is  no  virtue  for 
which  there  is  greater  demand  in  recitation,  than  pa- 
tience or  forbearance.  Some  children  are  weak  and 
timid,  others  are  bold  and  self-conceited.  Some  are 
dull  and  stupid,  and  some  are  willfully  and  incorrigibly 
vicious.  All  these  cases,  and  a  great  many  more  that 
might  be  named,  demand  different  degrees  and  quali- 
ties of  patience.  Indeed,  there  must  be  no  impatience 
or  petulance.     These  are  always  out  of  place. 

It  is  related  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Adam  Clark,  that 
when  a  child,  he  was  remarkable  for  nothing  but  his 
seeming  stupidity.  His  mother  had  undertaken  to 
teach  him  some  verses,  supposing,  as  most  mothers 
do,  that  the  only  evidence  of  intellectual  promise  con- 
sisted in  a  liking  for  books  and  progress  in  learning. 
She  had  labored  long,  faithfully,  patiently,  and  seem- 
ingly to  no   purpose;  when   the  father  of  the  lad,  a 


110  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

witness  of  the  scene  and  of  the  mother's  final  triumph, 
having  long  before  lost  all  patience,  exclaimed :  "  But 
how  could  you  have  patience  to  tell  that  blockhead 
the  same  thing  twenty  times  before  he  learned  it  ? " 
"  Because,  my  dear,"  was  the  meek  but  laconic  reply, 
"  if  I  had  stopped  with  the  nineteenth  time,  I  should 
have  lost  all  my  labor." 

This  example  of  patience  and  perseverance  is  worthy 
of  imitation.  The  teacher  is  too  apt  to  bestow  praise 
where  it  is  least  deserved  and  least  needed.  He  is 
pleased  with  the  smart  scholars ;  and  it  seems  natural 
that  he  should  be.  But  early  development  is  little 
evidence  of  intellectual  greatness,  as  the  subsequent 
history  of  our  smart  boys  and  girls  too  often  proves. 

Grace  Greenwood  tells  a  story  which  is  to  the  point 
here.  She  was  visiting  an  esteemed  and  talented 
friend  of  hers,  who,  unfortunately,  had  fallen  a  victim 
in  early  life,  to  books  and  colleges ;  but  who  had  es- 
caped to  the  country  to  mend  his  broken  health,  and 
save  his  family  from  a  like  calamity.  During  a  pleas- 
ant summer  afternoon,  a  little  boy  some  eight  years 
old,  the  son  of  our  frieud,  was  having  a  frolicking  time 
with  a  large  Newfoundland  dog.  Witnessing  their 
playful  gambols  upon  the  green  sward  before  the  door, 
Grace,  who,  it  is  said,  has  a  natural  fondness  for  chil- 
dren, remarked  to  her  friend,  "Why,  what  a  fine,  noble 
boy  you  have  there !  "  "  Well,''  coolly  remarked  the 
friend,  "  he  is  not  pretty,  nor  very  smart ;  but  he  is 
honest  and  healthy  :  he  is  innocent  and  good-natured  ; 
he  is  affectionate  and  obedient;  he  never  tells  lies, 
and,  thank  God,  he  dont  know  his  letters  ! " 

Now  this  needs  no  comment ;  but  it  is  a  severe  com- 
mentary upon  the  popular  opinion  that  children  are 
smart  only  when  they  give  early  indications  of  aptness 


KiSCITATlOtf.  Ill 

to  learn  from  books,  the  excess  of  which  is  rather  an 
unfavorable  omen  than  otherwise.  I  should  ask  no 
stronger  indications  of  future  mental  imbecility,  than 
precociousness,  or  that  a  child  should  abandon  his 
hoop  and  ball,  his  sports  and  romps,  and  betake  him- 
self to  books  and  moping  study.  The  boys  and  girls 
that  give  the  least  promise,  those  upon  whom  we 
are  accustomed  to  look  in  school,  as  the  dull  ones,  or 
the  mischievous  ones,  very  frequently  make  our  best 
men  and  women.  Let  patience  then  have  her  perfect 
wTork,  and  do  not  nip  the  tender  bud  by  petulance  or 
misjudgment.  "The  race  is  not  always  to  the  swift, 
nor  the  battle  to  the  strong:"  but  to  the  faithful,  pa- 
tient, toiling  ones.  They  need  our  patience,  sympa- 
thy and  love,  to  smooth  the  asperities  of  their  way, 
and  to  encourage  them  in  their  labors. 

Article  3— Methods. 

We  have  thus  far  spoken  only  of  the  objects  and 
requisites  of  recitation.  We  shall  now  devote  a  few 
pages  to  the  consideration  of  methods,  that  least  im- 
portant part,  since  every  one  well  versed  in  the 
philosophy  of  education  will,  to  a  great  extent,  be  the 
manufacturer  of  his  own  particular  plans.  Never- 
theless, there  are  some  general  plans  and  principles 
that  obtain  every-where.  They  are  matters  of  uni- 
versal application.  These  become  the  common  heritage 
of  all  who  enter  the  profession,  and  are  no  less 
practical  than  they  are  peculiar.  Hence  the  experience 
of  those  who  have  been  successful  may  be  of  great 
service  in  aiding  those  who  are  less  experienced,. to 
form  their  modes,  etc.,  and  as  such  we  give  these 
methods,  repeating  the  caution,  used  in  another  part 
of  this  work,  that  "  no  one  can  be  successful  if  he  copy 


112  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

the  entire  plans  of  another."  "  That  a  teacher's  sue 
cess  must  be  the  product  of  his  own  skill."  "  He  must 
be  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune."  "  That  particular 
methods  are  serviceable  only  so  far  as  they  can  be  gen- 
eralized ;  and  are  thus  suggestive  of  others."  There 
are,  however,  a  few  general  directions  which  logically 
precede  the  special  modes ;  and  indeed  all  that  is  really 
worthy  of  special  notice  in  the  methods  of  recitation, 
may  be  discussed  under  these.  They  have  reference 
more  immediately  to  the  manner  in  which  lessons 
should  be  recited,  and  therefore  apply  more  directly 
to  the  pupil  than  to  the  teacher. 

Section  1 — Completeness — is  a  condition  in  reci- 
tation that  should  not  be  overlooked.  There  is  a  very 
common  failing  among  teachers  of  all  grades,  respect- 
ing this  one  thing.  It  shows  itself  chiefly  under  the 
two  following  forms :  First,  in  fragmentary  answers; 
Second,  in  insufficient  answers  in  other  respects.  It 
is  no  common  thing  to  hear  questions  and  answers 
like  the  following : 

1.  "In  what  part  of  British  America,  near  several 
lakes,   does  the   MackenzieBiver  rise  ? " 

Answer.     "  Central. " 

2.  "What  mountains  in  North  America,  extending 
from  the  northern  part  of  British  America,  in  a  south- 
ern direction,  through  Washington  and  Oregon  Ter- 
ritories, in  the  United  States,  separating  Nebraska  and 
Kansas  Territories  from  Utah,  and  thence  branching 
oif  in  several  divisions  in  New  Mexico  ;  and  termi- 
nating finally  in  what  are  called  the  Sierra  Madre, 
near  the  southwestern  boundary  of  the  United  States?" 

Answer.     "  Rocky." 

3.  "  What  town  in  southeastern  Virginia,  celebrated 


RECITATION.  113 

tor  a  remarkable  battle,  fought  there  in  1781,  by  the 
Americans  and  French  on  the  one  side,  under  the 
command  of  General  Washington ;  and  the  British, 
under  the  command  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  in  which  the 
latter  was  defeated  and  captured,  surrendering  the 
whole  force  under  his  command,  to  the  Americans  ?  " 
Answer.     "  Yorktown. " 

4.  "  Suppose  you  wish  to  calculate  the  interest  on  a 
note  for  three  years,  six  months,  and  twenty-seven 
days :  after  you  have  found  the  interest  on  one  dollar, 
at  the  given  rate  per  cent,  and  for  the  given  time ; 
what  do  you  do  with  this,— divide  or  multiply  it  by  the 
principal  ?" 

Answer.  "  Multiply. "  And  the  same  course  is 
pursued  in.  other  branches. 

In  an  example  like  the  following,  the  evil  may  be 
seen  in  a  slightly  different  light. 

5.  "Where  does  the  Mississippi  River  empty?" 
The  pupil  having  perhaps  associated  the  words  "  Miss- 
issippi," "empty"  and  "Gulf  of  Mexico"  together, 
the  latter  would  be  the  answer.  But  on  reversing 
or  changing  the  questions  thus  :  "  What  flows  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico?"  or  "  What  took  place  at  York- 
town  ? "  "  What  mountains  in  North  America  ?  "  it 
has  been  found,  in  many  instances,  that  no  intelligent 
account  could  be  given. 

ISTow  we  do  not  claim  that  all  of  these  are  the  exact 
words  copied  from  the  text-books  upon  these  sciences; 
yet  they  are  but  fair  samples  of  them,  especially  of 
some  that  have  been  manufactured  or  distorted  by  the 
teachers  themselves,  in  order  to  render  them  more 
easily  answered :  and  the  answers  are  just  what 
children  would  ordinarily  give,  the  fault  being  moro 
with  the  questions  than  the  answers;  since  they  cir- 
10 


114  THE    ART    OF  TEACHING. 

cumscribe  them  to  one  or  two  words.  All  the  pupil 
really  has  to  do,  in  such  cases,  is  to  commit  to  memory 
a  word  or  two,  usually  under  each  question,  and  to  be 
careful  not  to  get  the  answers  confounded,  one  with 
another.  The  evil  exists  in  all  stages  of  development, 
from  the  very  worst,  on  till  it  can  scarcely  be  per- 
ceived. 

Now  any  one  can  see  the  evil  tendencies  of  this 
practice.  It  is  destructive  of  all  progress,  since  it  re- 
moves, in  a  great  measure,  all  obligation  from  the 
pupil,  to  say  nothing  about  the  bad  habits  it  fosters. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  the  questions  containing  so  much 
of  the  information,  which  belongs  properly  to  the  an- 
swer, it  should  only  call  up  distinctly  the  points  upon 
which  answer  is  demanded,  leaving  the  pupils  to  re- 
ply to  them.  And  instead  of  these  mere  fragmentary 
answers,  or  scarcely  any  answer  at  all,  each  one,  as  a 
general  thing,  should  be  a  complete  sentence  ;  and  in 
most  instances,  should  include  the  question  itself,  or 
so  much  of  it,  as  shall  be  necessary  to  make  an  entire 
sentence.  Thus  in  the  first  instance:  "  Where  is  the 
Mackenzie  river?"  Answer.  "The  Mackenzie  river 
rises  in  the  central  part  of  British  America  (naming 
the  lakes  etc.),  flows  in  a  north-western  direction,  and 
empties  its  waters  into  the  Northern  Ocean '"  (giving 
the  length  and  tributaries,  etc.,  if  desirable). 

Take  a  case  in  arithmetic.  Thus:  "How  do  you 
multiply  a  fraction  by  a  whole  number.''  Answer. 
"  To  multiply  a  fraction  by  a  whole  number,  we  either 
multiply  the  numerator  by  the  whole  number,  and 
under  this  product  write  the  denominator,  or,  when 
it  can  be  done  without  a  remainder,  we  divide  the 
denominator  by  the  whole  number,  and  write  the 
quotient   under   the  numerator,  and  reduce,  if  neces- 


RECITATION.  115 

sary,  "  etc.  The  same  course  should  be  pursued  with 
all  rules  and  definitions,  except,  perhaps,  in  rapid  re- 
views, or  when  the  pupil  is  known  to  be  familial 
with  them.  The  clearness,  distinctness  and  complete- 
ness of  utterance,  adds  very  materially  to  the  clearness 
and  comprehensiveness  of  the  understanding. 

Now  compare  the  answers  given  in  the  first  instances 
with  those  in  the  last,  and  tell  me  which  conveys  the 
most  intelligence,  which  the  most  discipline,  and  which 
will  make  the  readiest  and  most  exact  scholars.  Which 
of  the  two  methods  is  the  easier  for  the  teacher, — the 
long  questions  (especially  when  they  have  to  be  read 
from  a  book,  during  the  time  in  which  the  teacher's 
eye  must  be  upon  the  class,  to  prevent  them  from  a 
like  calamity),  or  the  short  questions  and  long  answers, 
throwing  the  burden  of  labor  on  the  pupil  where  it  is 
needed  ?  Which  contains  the  greater  force, — a  half 
sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence  ?  Which  the  most 
beauty  ?  Which  will  cultivate  the  mind  to  the  great- 
er extent, — a  part  of  the  truth,  or  the  whole  truth  ? 
Which  would  be  of  the  greater  demand  in  a  Court 
of  Justice?  The  one  is  just  as  much  more  forcible 
than  the  other,  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended, as  a  whole  charge  of  powder  is  than  a  half  or 
a  hundredth  part.  Every  answer  therefore,  should  be 
an  entirety,  and  should  have  some  immediate  connec- 
tion with  the  question. 

The  case  of  insufficient  answer  is  one  not  so  marked 
in  its  effects.  It  differs  from  the  one  just  described, 
in  that  it  attempts  completeness  as  to  extent,  but 
omits  some  important  points.  It  is  usually  the  result 
of  weakness,  want  of  culture,  or  carelessness.  It 
applies,  of  course,  as  well  to  the  incompleteness  of 
articulation  and  vocalization,  as   to   the   poverty  of 


116  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

language  or  expression.  About  the  only  remedy  for 
this  difficulty  is  practice.  If  a  child  fail  to  give  a 
complete  answer  in  relationi  to  this  feature  of  it,  it 
should  be  repeated  even  to  the  twentieth  time,  or 
until  it  is  correct.  Let  it  not  be  passed  over  by  the 
teacher,  with  this  excuse:  "  0,  he  knows,  I  guess; 
only  he  can't  tell  it.  "  "  His  power  to  express  himself 
is  so  poor,  that  I  do  not  require  much  of  him:" 
while,  in  fact,  this  is  the  very  reason  why  he  is  en- 
titled to  extra  attention.  This  is  one  of  the  objects 
of  the  recitation,  viz.,  to  cultivate  the  power  of  ex- 
pression. If  the  child  were  perfect,  so  far  as  further 
improvement  is  concerned,  he  need  not  recite  ;  aud 
the  same  principle  holds  good  with  any  imaginable 
degree  of  perfection  :  the  nearer  perfect,  the  less  need 
of  recitation  ;  and  the  further  from  it,  the  more,  so 
far  as  that  perfection  which  the  recitation  can  impart, 
is  concerned.  Hence  the  child  that  halts  the  most, 
and  makes  the  poorest  recitation,  should  recite  the 
most,  however  agreeable  it  may  be  to  listen  to  the 
prompt  ones  recite.  The  recitation  should  therefore, 
be  distributed  among. the  pupils,  according  to  the  age, 
advancement  and  capacity. 

It  will  be  found  that  many  scholars  require  frequent 
repetition  before  they  can  overcome  their  difficulties. 
It  will  not  usually  remedy  a  deficiency  to  tell  the  child 
his  answer  is  insufficient,  or  even  to  correct  his  errors 
for  him ;  he  must  mend  his  own  errors  if  he  would  pro- 
fit by  his  labor.  We  can  not  correct  bad  habits  by 
merely  exposing  them;  neither  can  we  establish  good 
ones  by  mere  precept.  We  need  the  actual  practice.  It 
will  not  make  a  boy  a  good  accountant,  merely  to  show 
him  the  mistakes  of  others;  nor  yet  will  it  to  show 
him  the  beauty,  order,  and  arrangement  of  the  day- 


RECITATION.  117 

book,  journal  and  ledger.  He  must  have  the  actual 
practice.  To  drive  out  a  bad  habit,  we  must  establish 
a  good  one  in  its  stead ;  and  to  establish  a  habit  of 
any  kind  requires  practice  and  repetition.  Hence,  if  a 
mistake  is  made  by  the  pupil,  it  is  not  enough  that 
the  teacher  say  to  him,  "  ISTo ;  not  that  way  :  thus ; " 
and  then  pass  on  ;  but  the  error  should  be  corrected 
by  the  scholar  himself,  and  the  correction  repeated,  and 
re-repeated,  in  class  and  out  of  class,  in  concert  and 
alone,  until  it  is  thoroughly  established  ;  or,  the  proba- 
bilities are,  the  very  next  time  the  thing  is  used,  the 
same  error  will  be  committed. 

I  recollect  that  I  once  listened  to  a  recitation  in  elo- 
cution, by  a  class  in  one  of  our  best  colleges,  when 
something  like  the  following  took  place:  The  word 
"persist,"  I  think, occurred  three  times  in  the  same  few 
paragraphs.  The  student  read  to  the  first,  and  pro- 
nounced it  "perzist."  "  No,"  said  the  teacher,  "that 
is  pronounced  '  persist.' "  The  pupil  read  on  until  it 
occurred  again,  when  he  pronounced  it  as  before. 
"  Persist,"  remarked  the  teacher.  "  Persist,"  responded 
the  scholar,  and  read  on,  until  he  came  to  it  the  third 
time,  when  it  again  became  "  perzist,"  which  was  again 
corrected  by  the  teacher.  I  then  called  upon  the 
young  man  to  read  the  same  paragraph  again ;  when 
all  three  of  the  'perzists"  came  on  in  their  regular  order. 
I  then  called  his  attention  to  it,  and  requested  him  to 
pronounce  it  with  me  three  times.  He  did  so.  I  re- 
peated that  process  with  him  several  times,  after  which 
I  requested  the  whole  class  (some  forty  in  number)  to 
pronounce  it  in  concert,  for  a  successive  number  of 
times.  I  then  turned  to  the  young  man,  and  asked 
him  to  pronounce  it,  and  it  was  "persist"  every  time 
after  that.     The  word    heneatk   (subvocal  "  th ")  was 


118  THE   ART    OF    TEACHING. 

corrected  in  a  similar  manner.  The  same  thing  is 
true  of  sentences,  rules,  definitions,  and  answers  to 
questions  generally.  If  they  are  not  complete,  they 
should  not  be  passed  over  until  they  are.  It  would 
not  be  well  to  tax  the  time  of  the  recitation  to  a  very 
great  extent,  in  this  repeating  process ;  or  this  may 
nduce  some  to  defer  learning  the  lesson  until  they 
come  in  class.  But  this  may  easily  be  prevented  by 
care. 

The  same  principle  holds  good  with  problems,  ques- 
tions, examples,  and  all  slate  and  board  exercises. 
They  never  should  be  left  or  called  right  until  they 
are  complete  in  all  their  parts.  Not  a  decimal  point 
or  the  most  apparently  insignificant  sign  or  mark 
should  be  understood;  for,  in  business  transactions,  it 
would  not  be  considered  satisfactory  in  a  note  of  $1300, 
to  say  that  the  decimal  point  is  understood  between 
the  digits  and  ciphers.  The  difference,  however,  be- 
tween $1300  and  $13.00,  is  not  greater  than  the  differ- 
ence between  right  and  wrong,  morally  speaking,  in 
any  other  respect.  Let  the  most  scrupulous  care  be 
exercised,  therefore,  in  order  to  secure  completeness,  at 
least  in  those  two  particulars  named ;  for  "  Whatever 
is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well." 

Section  2 — Definiteness  and  Exactness  are  quali- 
ties that  should  be  cultivated.  We  have  spoken 
already  upon  some  topics  nearly  allied  to  these,  while 
discussing  the  objects  and  requisites  of  recitation. 
Their  application  to  methods,  however,  is  peculiar. 
Definiteness  and  exactness,  as  used  here,  differ  from 
completeness  in  its  two  phases  alluded  to,  in  that  while 
the  latter  remedies  the  two  evils,  viz.,  fragmentary  and 
insufficient  answers,  and  relates  to  fullness  and  integrity 


RECITATION.  119 

of  answer,  or  to  quantity ;  definiteness  and  exactness  re- 
fer to  precision  and  perspicuity  in  the  use  of  language, 
or  to  quality  rather  than  quantity. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  the  terms  here  used  have  the 
exact  logical  or  metaphysical  meaning  in  themselves, 
that  we  have  attached  to  them :  but  it  will  be  remem 
bered  they  are  used  simply  in  a  technical  sense,  and 
for  the  purpose,  chiefly,  of  distinguishing  and  describ- 
ing practices,  etc.,  that  are  nearly  similar.  Teachers 
are  not  sufficiently  careful  to  secure  plain  and  precise 
answers  ;  and  the  pupils  come  to  think,  by  and  by, 
that  almost  any  answer  will  do  ;  often  depending  upon 
the  fortune  of  the  occasion  for  manufacturing  one,  or 
resorting  to  the  guessing  process,  by  which  they  are 
enabled  to  slide  along  somehow.  Their  knowledge 
exists  in  a  kind  of  chaotic  state.  It  lacks  system  and 
arrangement.  Now  it  is  the  business  of  education  to 
regulate  this  mass  of  vagrant  matter,  to  point  it,  and 
energize  it,  to  make  of  the  seemingly  dead  carcass 
a  living  soul. 

One  particular  form  of  indefiniteness  will  be  pointed 
out,  from  which  others  may  be  inferred.  It  exhibits 
itself  at  the  blackboard,  in  some  instances,  where 
pupils  have  not  had  the  advantages  of  early  training  in 
the  use  of  marks  and  figures,  such  as  described  in  a 
former  chapter.  They  have  been  accustomed,  it  may 
be,  to  express  themselves,  both  at  the  board  and  in 
other  recitations,  in  so  vague  and  indefinite  a  manner, 
as  to  pay  little  or  no  attention  to  the  size,  form,  position 
and  arrangement  of  the  figures  and  lines;  and  hence 
it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  see  pictures  like  the 
following,  upon  the  board  during  recitation. 

xv>>   OV  THB        ^\ 

!KIVBRSIT7| 


120 


THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 


<3>;  ^ 


Perhaps  some  teachers  will  recognize  the  above  pict- 
ure as  a  familiar  acquaintance;  for  it  is  but  a  fair 
transcript  of  what  may  be  seen  upon  blackboards  in 
all  parts  of  the  country;  and  it  is  a  fair  inference  to 
suppose  that  it  presents  a  very  just  view  of  the  state 
of  the  mental  discipline  of  the  children  who  formed  it. 
Now  how  long  will  it  require  a  child  to  lose  himself 
and  become  discouraged  in  working  an  example  after 
this  fashion?  I  presume  it  would  not  be  too  much  to 
say  that  nine-tenths  of  the  mistakes  and  failures  which 
occur  at  the  board,  find  their  origin,  either  immedi- 
ately or  remotely,  in  some  such  indefiniteness  as  the 
foregoing  exhibits.  How  long  a  time  will  it  require 
to  acquire  clear  and  definite  ideas  upon  grammar  and 
the  use  of  language ;  upon  the  geography  of  his  coun- 
try; or,  in  a  word,  to  acquire  a  fund  of  knowledge 


RECITATION.  121 

that  will  be  permanently  serviceable  to  him,  if  he  is 
thus  indefinite  in  all  his  recitations?  It  is  true,  this 
general  "  mixing  up "  and  vagueness  of  expression 
might,  in  time,  wear  itself  down  to  something  like  an 
understandable  shape;  but  it  is  the  object  of  educa- 
tion, and  especially  of  recitation,  to  save  this  time,  and 
to  correct  and  refine,  to  trim  and  prune  this  misshapen 
mass,  just  as  specifically  as  it  is  the  business  of  the 
gardener  to  trim  and  prune,  to  bend  and  straiten,  the 
crooked,  gnarled  and  unsightly  branches  of  the  tree. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  the  suspicious-looking  charac- 
ters in  the  foregoing  examples,  and  the  glaring  want 
of  order  and  precision  in  the  arrangement  of  them,  the 
following  will  in  all  respects  be  preferable. 


,r 


O 


a 


Now  the  child  will  take  a  thousand  times  as  much 
interest  and  pleasure  in  these  examples,  because  they 
are  more  beautiful  and  more  orderly. 

Section  3 — Comprehensiveness. — Every  recitation, 
definition,  rule  and  application  should  be  rendered  as 
comprehensive  as  possible,  both  with  reference  to  a 
clear  and  explicit  understanding  of  the  matter,  and  in 
making  it  as  specific  as  possible.  This  part  of  teach- 
ing is  too  much  neglected.  Teachers  are  too  easily 
satisfied  with  the  mere  repetition  of  words,  or  with  the 
bare  recitation,  without  giving  it  a  sensible  or  life-like 
11 


122  THE   ART    OF    TEACHING. 

turn,  without  making  it  comprehend  the  bnsii  ess 
transactions  or  apply  to  the  life-duties  and  the  r  ali- 
ties  to  which  the  lessons  frequently  refer.  Hence  it 
is  not  difficult  to  find  those  among  pupils  (I  will  not 
say  among  teachers)  who,  though  they  have  "  ciphered 
through  the  book,"  yet  do  not  possess  a  dozen  clear 
and  well-defined  ideas  upon  arithmetic :  or  those  who, 
though  they  have  "said  all  the  grammar  in  the  book," 
yet  are  incapable  of  writing  or  speaking  without 
making  the  most  ridiculous  blunders. 

Again:  there  are  those  who,  though  they  may  be 
able  to  answer  all  the  questions  printed  in  their  geog- 
raphies, are  nevertheless  profoundly  ignorant  of  dis- 
tance and  direction  in  general,  or  the  relative  position 
of  places  on  the  globe.  When,  for  the  sake  of  test- 
ing their  comprehension  of  local  geography,  I  have 
requested  them  to  point  toward  the  different  places 
and  things  about  which  they  were  reciting,  such,  for 
instance,  as  Spain,  Iceland  or  California ;  the  Andes, 
Alps  or  Alleghany  mountains;  to  Constantinople, 
Cincinnati  or  St.  Petersburg;  or  to  places,  lakes  and 
rivers  in  the  more  immediate  vicinity;  almost  all  im- 
aginable directions  have  been  given  ;  some  up,  some 
down,  some  to  the  right  and  some  to  the  left,  repre- 
senting nearly  all  the  points  of  the  compass  for  one 
single  place.  In  a  very  few  instances,  indeed,  has 
there  been  any  thing  like  correctness  or  uniformity ; 
showing  a  most  lamentable  deficiency  in  comprehen- 
sion. Their  ideas  of  geography  had  not  been  local- 
ized. They  had  learned  the  answers  to  the  questions, 
which  in  itself,  is  all  well  enough,  but  they  had  not 
got  beyond  that.  Their  ideas  were  of  books  and  maps 
and  not  of  the  earth ;  and  when  they  thought  of  these 
places  (or  their   names  rather)  they  at  once  called  to 


RECITATION.  123 

mind  the  book,  and  their  position  and  appearance 
there.  One  boy,  and  one  of  my  own  teaching  too, 
contended  stoutly  with  me,  that  the  waters  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  ran  toward  the  south-w7est,  since,  as  he 
affirmed,  the  wTater  could  not  run  up  hill — as  he  sup- 
posed from  the  position  of  the  map  upon  the  wall, 
from  which  he  had  obtained  much  of  his  geographical 
knowledge,  would  be  the  case,  if  they  ran  toward  the 
north-east.  Others  again  have  told  me  that  Indiana 
is  red ;  Ohio,  yellow  ;  Kentucky,  green;  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, blue ;  that  the  rivers  and  lines  representing 
boundary  are  black,  since  these  things  are  so  repre- 
sented upon  the  map.  Sometimes,  on  my  asking  these 
simple  questions  on  local  geography,  there  would  be  a 
vacant  stare,  or  a  half-suppressed  laugh,  as  much  as 
to  say,  "  Why,  that  question  is  not  in  the  lesson  or 
book." 

Teachers,  therefore,  can  not  be  too  careful  to  local- 
ize, or  transfer  the  ideas  from  the  book  to  the  things 
intended.     In  geography,  for  instance,  in  speaking  of 
mountains,  instead  of  confining  the  mind  solely  to  the 
dark  or  light  spots  upon  the  map,  the  pupils  should 
be  carried  in  imagination  to  the  base,  or  plain  below. 
They  then  should  cast  their  eyes  up  along  the  sides 
to  the  hight  of  two   or  three  very  tall  trees  (if  the 
children  live  in   the  country),  or  church  steeples  (if 
they  live  in  cities),  to  the  jutting  rocks  or  cliffs  that 
hang  ready  to  tumble  from  the  side:  then  to  a  bright 
cascade  glittering  in  the  sunshine  a  half  mile  higher 
ip  the  side;  then  to  the  forests  of  evergreens  that 
:irt  the  sides  beyond,  and  last  of  all  to  the  towering 
►eak  that  lifts  its  head  above  all  these,  and  against 
rhich  the  clouds  strike  and  crumble  to  pieces  as  they 
>ass  along;  or  if  the  subject  is  a  river,  instead  of  con- 


124  THE    ART   OF    TEACHING. 

lining  their  minds  to  the  dark  lines  upon  the  map,  ex- 
clusively, let  them  see  the  banks,  low  and  marshy, 
beautiful  and  fertile,  or  high  and  rocky,  and  the  farms 
and  foliage  in  the  distance;  if  a  state  or  country,  in- 
stead of  the  various  and  variegated  colors  upon  che 
map,  they  should  behold  the  hills  and  valleys,  the 
plains  and  forests,  farms,  grainfields  and  meadows, 
houses  and  barns,  roads,  cities  and  villages,  and  every 
thing,  in  fact,  that  belongs  to  local  geography.  A 
similar  course  may  be  pursued  with  the  other  sciences. 

Section  4 — Independence. — Again;  the  child  should 
be  taught  to  manifest  a  due  degree  of  independence  in 
recitation.  There  are,  however,  two  extremes  here, 
and  chiefly  attributable  to  the  practice  of  the  teacher. 
We  shall  endeavor  to  guard  him  against  both.  The 
one  is  a  blind  adherence  to  books  and  customs,  and  a 
cowardly  or  indolent  dependence,  which  forbids  every 
attempt  to  think  for  one's  self:  the  other  is  an  ego- 
tistic assurance,  or  self-conceited  effrontery  that  sets 
aside  all  books  and  definitions.  It  is  a  disposition  and 
a  habit  some  teachers  fall  into,  of  finding  fault  with 
authors,  and  every  body  else  whose  opinions  do  not 
agree  with  their  own.  They  seem  to  think  it  a  mark 
of  wisdom  to  quarrel  with  definitions  and  rules.  They 
build  up  their  reputation  with  the  bones  of  their 
demolished  (?)  adversaries  ;  and  often  build  upon  their 
follies  and  weaknesses.  They  live  by  plunder.  They 
are  wiseacres.  They  are  continually  making  dis- 
coveries, that  others  have  made  long  before  them,  but 
which  their  better  judgment  led  them  to  see  were  no 
discoveries.  They  can  see  but  one  side  of  an  argu- 
ment, and  that  is  their  side,  and  unfortunately  it  is  too 
frequently  the  wrong   side.     Such,  for  example,  are 


RECITATION.  125 

those  who  must  live  hy  excitement,  always  inventing 
some  new  thing,  and  straining  to  make  the  world 
believe  that  everything  has  been  going  wrong  until 
they  happened  to  be  born.  They  do  not  spend  their 
time  and  energies  so  much  in  teaching  the  sciences, 
as  in  finding  fault  with  them,  and  hence  weaken  the 
confidence  of  the  scholar  that  needs  strengthening; 
unbend  the  energies  that  need  stimulating ;  and  un- 
settle and  distract  the  purposes  and  knowledge  that 
may  have  been  half  formed. 

The  other  extreme  is  scarcely  less  detrimental  to 
true  progress,  but  not  so  dangerous.  The  one  is 
absolute  destruction,  the  other  is  simply  a  barrier. 
While  the  first  cuts  loose  from  all  mooring,  carries  no 
anchor  and  ignores  all  faith,  save  what  its  own  dog- 
matism invents ;  the  other  remains  bound  fast  to  the 
ancient  customs,  and  dares  not  believe  and  practice 
anything  that  does  not  conform  to  the  creed.  The 
one  is  rabid  radicalism ;  the  other  is  rank  conservatism. 
The  one  is  meteoric  or  gaseous;  the  other  is  fossilifer- 
ous.     Both  are  destructive  to  healthy  growth  of  mind. 

The  effects  of  either  of  these  extremes  upon  the 
pupil  can  easily  be  imagined.  They  either  become 
pedantic,  self-conceited  and  opinionated,  or  obsequious, 
stupid  and  parasitical.  But  there  is  a  happy  mean 
between  the  two  extremes,  and  that  the  teacher  should 
endeavor  to  follow.  While  I  would  not  recommend 
a  blind  subserviency  to  the  old  usages,  and  to  texts 

I  and  definitions  as  laid  down  by  authors ;  yet  I  would 
say,  agree  with  authors  just  as  far  as  possible,  lest  your 
distrust  and  skepticism  lead  those  who  have  less 
judgment,  too  far  from  a  settled  belief;  and  lest  you 
distract  the  interest  and  attention  so  necessary  to 
r 


126  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

There  is  still  another  feature  of  independence  worthy 
of  consideration  in  this  connection.  It  aims  to  correct 
a  prevailing  practice,  among  teachers,  which,  for  evil 
results  has  scarcely  a  parallel.  We  speak  of  the 
practice  of  rendering  undue  assistance,  or  of  prompt- 
ing the  scholar  during  recitation.  This  evil  is  so 
general  and  has  so  many  slightly  different  phases,  that 
it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  guard  against  all  of 
them  in  the  short  space  allotted  here. 

The  case  of  pupils'  prompting  each  other,  in  recita- 
tion, prevails  in  many  schools  to  a  very  great  extent. 
And  what  renders  it  still  worse,  it  is  winked  at  by 
many  teachers,  or  at  least  no  very  vigorous  attempts 
are  made  to  break  it  up.  Now  I  can  hardly  conceive 
of  a  greater  insult,  except  open  violence  itself,  a  pupil 
could  offer  a  teacher  or  fellow  pupil  than  if,  when  a 
question  is  asked,  he  should  clandestinely  commu- 
nicate the  answer  to  the  pupil  about  to  recite.  To 
say  nothing  about  its  criminality,  as  a  species  of 
falsehood,  the  effects  upon  the  progress  of  the  pupil 
upon  which  it  is  practiced,  is  most  ruinous.  I  have 
known  several  instances  where  pupils  have  been  dis- 
graced by  this  vice,  to  such  an  extent  that  they  had 
lost  all  confidence  in  themselves,  and  they  were  con- 
tent seemingly  to  remain  in  this  state  of  abject  ser- 
vility. I  have  known  others  again,  who  had  practiced 
"telling  in  class"  so  long,  that  it  seemed  almost  an 
impossibility  to  break  them  of  it.  I  know  of  no 
remedies  other  than  those  used  to  prevent  other  crimes 
of  like  magnitude. 

But  the  worst  form  of  this  vice  is  exhibited,  when 
the  teacher  himself  descends  to  it.  It  then  becomes 
as  it  were,  a  public  pest,  and  it  is  as  if  all  barriers 
to  laziness  and  deception  had  been  thrown  down.     It 


RECITATION. 


127 


is  usually  practiced  by  the  use  of  what  are  called 
leading  questions,  which  may  be  classified  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  1.  By  asking  questions  in  such  a  form 
as  only  to  require  the  assent  or  dissent  of  the  pupil. 
2.  By  arranging  the  questions  in  such,  a  manner  as  to 
make  them  embrace  all  the  answer  except  the  last  few 
words,  that  maybe  readily  inferred  from  the  preced- 
ing. 8.  By  suggesting  the  answer  either  by  a  sig- 
nificant word,  tone  of  voice,  look  or  gesture.  4.  By 
open  assistance,  or  preventing  the  pupil  by  untimely 
assistance.  All  these  forms  have  a  tendency  to  weak- 
en or  destroy  independence  in  thought  and  study,  as 
well  as  in  recitation.  They  can  be  best  illustrated  by 
giving  examples  in  each. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  class  in  arithmetic  is 
called  upon  to  recite,  when  the  following  dialogue 
takes  place — 

Teacher.  You  can  not  add  fractions  that  have  not 
a  common  denominator,  can  you  ? 

Pupil.  No,  sir. 

T.  Well,  wheu  you  wish  to  add  fractions  of  this 
kind,  they  must  be  reduced  to  a  common  denominator, 
must  they  not  ? 

P.   Yes,  sir. 

T.  Very  well !  Now  to  reduce  fractions  to  a  com- 
mon denominator,  you  must  multiply  all  the  denom- 
inators together  for  a  new  denominator,  must  you  not? 

P.   Yes,  sir. 

IT.   Well   then ;   to    find   the    several   numerators, 
don't  you  have  to  multiply  each  one  by  the   product 
of  all  the  denominators,  except  its  own? 
P.   Yes,  sir. 
T.   Then,  to  add,  you  must  find  the  sum  of  these, 


128  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

P.    Yes,  sir. 

T.  And  then  you  place  the  common  denominator 
under  this  sum,  do  you  not  ? 

P.    Yes,  sir. 

T.  Then,  if  the  resulting  fraction  is  an  improper 
fraction,  it  may  be  reduced  to  a  whole  or  mixed 
number,  may  it  not? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  Very  well !  (flatteringly),  and  all  parties  seem 
well  satisfied  with  their  progress — the  teacher  in  ex- 
hibiting his  knowledge,  and  the  pupil  in  saying  Yes, 
sir :  for  any  one  can  see  that  the  teacher  did  what 
reciting  was  done,  only  asking  the  assent  or  dissent 
of  the  pupil,  as  he  advanced,  which,  of  course,  was 
readily  granted. 

2.  The  second  variety  of  prompting,  or  that  in 
which  the  questions  are  so  arranged,  as  to  embrace  all 
the  answer,  except  the  last  few  words  which  are  sug- 
gested by  the  preceding,  or  "answers  made  easy," 
may  be  described  in  the  following  manner.  Take  an 
example  of  a  recitation  in  Grammar. 

Teacher.  The  part  of  English  Grammar  which  treats 
of  the  modification,  inflection,  composition  and  classi- 
fication of  words,  is  called  what  ? 
Pupil.  Etymology. 

T.  That  part  which   treats  of  the  agreement  and 
government  of  words,  and  their  arrangement  in  sen 
tences,  is  called  what? 

P.   Syntax. 

T.  When    words  denote  objects — or  the  names  of 
all  persons,  places  or  things,  they  are  called  what? 

P.  Nouns. 

T.  Nouns  are  classified  into  two  general  divisions 


RECITATION.  129 

or  classes,  the  one  including  all  general  or  common 
names,  the  other  all  particular  or  proper  names  :  now, 
what  are  these  called  ? 

P.  Common  and  proper. 

T.  Very  well  :  now  that  property  of  the  noun, 
which  is  used  to  distinguish  the  sexes,  is  called  what  ? 

P.  Gender. 

T.  When  the  word  denotes  a  male,  wbat  gender 
is  it? 

P.  Masculine.     (So  of  all  the  genders.) 

T.  That  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  used  to 
distinguish  the  person  speaking,  from  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  to  or  spoken  of,  is  called  what  ? 

P.  Person. 

T.  There  are  three  persons  used  in  English  Gram 
mar;  the  first  denotes  the  person  or  thing  speaking; 
the  second,  the  person  or  thing  spoken  to ;  the  third, 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of:  now,  what  are  they 
called? 

P.  First,  second  and  third  (so  of  the  definitions  of 
the  several  persons). 

T.  That  property  of  the  noun  and  pronoun,  used  to 
show  their  relations  to  other  words  in  a  sentence,  is 
called  what  ? 

P.  Case. 

T.  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition,  or  as  the  agent,  actor  or  doer  of 
a  thing,  in  what  case  is  it? 

P.  STominative  case.     (So  of  all  the  cases,  etc.) 

The  faults  alluded  to  above,  are  much  aggravated 
if  the  questions  are  printed  in  the  text  book.  The 
pupils  may  in  this  case  be  hunting  up  the  answers 
while  the  teacher  is  reading  the  questions.  This  they 
have  a  fair  opportunity  to  do,  since  the  answers  are 


130  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

so  much  shorter  than  the  questions.     This  mode,  how- 
ever, is  less  objectionable  than  the  first,  in  one  or  two 
respects,  since  it  does  graciously  grant  the  pupil  the 
privilege  of  slight  variations.     He  is  not  obliged  to 
say,  "  Yes,  sir"  all  the  time;  but  may  make  his  selec- 
tions, and  guesses  from  at  least  a  dozen  words.     But 
it  is  more  general  in  its  use;  and  hence,  in  the  main 
more  baneful  than  the  other.     The  first  is  so  glaring 
in  its  absurdness,  that  it  would  seem,  no  one  would 
practice  it.     Yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  cases  in  our 
schools  precisely  parallel ;  and  then  it  has  almost  all 
possible  shades  and  degrees  of  inconsistency  ranging 
from  this  extreme,  until  we  scarcely  find  a  trace  of  it, 
or  merging  into  some  other  practice  equally  reprehen- 
sible.    We  find  the  other  in  some  of  its  forms  and 
modifications,  in  nearly  all   the  schools.     But  it  will 
be  seen  at  once,  that  it  virtually  deprives  the  pupil  of 
the  benefits  of  the  recitation.     He  acquires  none  of 
that  discipline  in  thought  and  style  which  is  contem- 
plated in  the  objects  of  study  and  recitation.      He  is 
put  upon  the  stand  as  a  mere  piece  of  furniture.     His 
principal  business  is  to  give  mechanical  responses.    In 
this  respect  he  resembles  the  piano  at  his  side.     He  is 
for  the  benefit  of  the  player,  or  for  the  teacher   to 
exhibit  his  skill  upon,  in  asking  and  answering  ques- 
tions.    It  is  just  so  much  answer  for  so  much   ques- 
tion; and  when  the  teacher  ceases  playing  his  ques- 
tions upon  him,  he  is  as  quiet,  so  far  as  recitation  is 
concerned,  as  the  dumb  piano.     The  teacher  himself 
is  on  exhibition,  in  such  recitations  as  these,  and  he 
only  uses  his  scholars  as  instruments  to  aid  him   in 
making  a  display  :  and  for  all  practical  purposes,  they 
might  almost  as  well  be  so  many  posts  or  pegs. 

3.  The  third   case,  or  that  in  which  the   answer  is 


RECITATK  IN.  131 

suggested  by  peculiar  arrangement,  significant  word, 
tone  of  voice,  look  or  gesture,  is  one  of  most  frequent 
occurrence;  and  like  the  others,  it  may  enter  every 
grade  of  recitation.  It  is  more  difficult  of  description, 
however,  since  the  tones  of  the  voice,  gesticulation 
and  manner  can  not  be  represented  to  advantage, 
upon  paper.  Suppose,  however,  we  have  a  recitation 
in  geography. 

Teacher.  Is  the  earth  a  flat  plain,  or  is  it  round 
like  a  ball  ? 

Pupil.     It  is  round. 

T.     Is  there  more  land  or  water  on  the  surface  ? 

P.     Water. 

T.  Is  there  more  land  south  or  north  of  the  equa- 
tor? 

P.     North. 

T.  Are  the  Balkan  mountains  in  Australia  or 
Turkey  t 

P.     In  Turkey. 

T.     Is  the  surface  hilly  or  level  in  New   England  ? 

P.     Hilly. 

T.  Does  the  Rio  Grande  flow  into  the  Pacific  Ocean 
or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  f 

P.     Into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

T.  Is  the  temperature  in  the  frigid  zones  higher 
or  lower  than  it  is  in  the  torrid? 

P.     Lower. 

T.  Where  is  the  Colorado  river,  in  Maine  or 
Mexico  f 

P.     In  Mexico.  (?) 

Or  suppose  the  lesson  is  in  arithmetic. 

T.  To  multiply  a  ratio,  must  you  multiply  the 
antecedent  or  consequent  ? 

P.     The  consequent. 


132  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

T.  If  in  a  proportion,  the  answer  ought  to  be 
greater  than  the  third  terra,  do  you  place  the  greater 
of  the  two  remaining  terms  in  the  first  or  second 
place? 

P.      In  the  second  place, 

T.  To  reduce  fractions  to  their  lowest  terms,  do 
you  multiply  or  divide  those  terms  ? 

P.     Divide  them.     Etc. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  mode  is  subject  to  all  the 
objections  of  the  second  one,  with  an  additional  one, 
viz.:  that  of  offering  a  choice  between  two  answers 
and  that  choice  always  determined  either  by  the  posi- 
tion of  some  important  word,  or  the  tone  of  voice  in 
which  it  is  pronounced.  But  its  worst  form  consists 
in  look  or  gesture. 

Suppose  a  class  to  be  reciting,  and  a  question  like 
the  following  is  asked  : 

Teacher.  Where  does  the  Mississippi  river  rise, 
which  way  does  it  run,  and  into  what  does  it  flow? 

Pupil.  "  It  rises  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States,  and" — (hesitates)."  T.  "In  what  lake  com- 
mencing wTith  ?  "  (pointing  to  his  eye).  P.  "  In  lake 
Itaska,  and  runs" — (hesitates  and  looks  at  the  teacher, 
who  makes  a  mistake  and  points  the  wrong  way) — 
"north."  T.  "How?"  (correcting  himself).  P. 
"South."  T.  "Well,  into  what  does  it  flow?"  P. 
"And  flows  into"  —  (hesitates) —  T.  "Into  what 
gulf?  "  P.  "  Into  tbe  Gulf  of  St.— (hesitates  and  looks 
at  the  teacher,  who  shakes  his  head)  "  California !  " 
T.  "Where?"  P.  "Mexico?"  T.  "Yes!  very 
well ! "  And  other  questions  are  disposed  of  in  a 
similar  manner. 

Take  a  lesson  in  parsing.  Example :  "  Careless 
girls  soil  their  books." 


RECITATION.  133 

Pupil  "Careless  is  a  verb."  T.  "No*"  (Pupil 
looks  desponding,  evidently  waiting  to  be  told). 

T.  "What  part  of  speech  is  it  that  expressed 
quality  ?  "  P.  "  Oh,  the  adverb  I "  T.  "  No,  that  mo- 
difies the  verb,"  etc.  P.  "Well  then  (inquiringly), an 
adjective?"  T.  "That  is  it!"  (flatteringly):  "Now 
go  on  ;  "  and  he  does  go  on  in  the  same  halting,  hall- 
guessing,  half  indifferent  manner  to  the  close  of  the 
sentence,  when  he  knows  but  little  more  than  he  did 
before  he  commenced. 

The  practice  that  pupils  sometimes  fall  into  of 
closing  each  answer  with  the  rising  slide,  or  as  if 
they  asked  the  teacher  if  it  were  not  so,  is  one  falling 
under  this  head,  and  should  be  carefully  guarded. 
This  might  be  called  the  guessing  process,  since  the 
scholar  by  a  shrewd  bantering  way  manages  to  guess 
his  way  along,  and  to  call  the  answer  out  of  the 
teacher.  For  instance,  a  child  commences  a  definition, 
rule  or  explanation,  and  progresses  until  he  arrives  at 
a  point  where  he  is  not  quite  certain.  He  hesitates, 
and  glan-ces  at  the  teacher,  who  is  also  watching  and 
ready  to  respond.  He  proceeds  cautiously,  and  per- 
haps makes  about  a  half  mistake,  when  a  shake  of  the 
head,  a  knowing,  significant  look  or  wink  from  the 
teacher,  arrests  him,  and  he  quickly  changes  and 
glides  off  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  or  after  hesi- 
tating and  telegraphing  the  teacher,  to  know  whether 
he  is  right  or  wrong,  upon  receiving  an  affirmative 
reply,  by  nod,  wink  or  any  other  sign,  he  moves  or, 
assured  that  all  is  safe. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  class  is  spelling 
orally.  The  teacher  pronounces  the  word  "  indepen- 
dent."     The  pupil  spells  "  in-de-pend-a  " (The 

teacher   looks    the   knowing  look),   "  ent "  is  quickly 


134  THE    ART    OF     TEACHING. 

pronounced  by  the  pupil.  Teacher.  "  Ceremonial." 
Pupil.  "Se"—  T.  "How?"  "Cer-i"—  T.  "Cere- 
monial, not  Cerimonial  "  (accenting  and  rendering  long 
the  second  syllable).  P.  "Cer-e-mo-n" — (hesitates 
and  looks  inquiringly  at  the  teacher),  "  e  " — (slight 
shake  of  the  teacher's  head),  "i"  (an  approving  look 
and  nod),  "  Ceremoni-el."  T.  "  How  ? "  P.  "  al— Cere- 
monial." T.  "  That's  right ; "  and  another  word  is 
guessed  through  in  a  similar  manner.  Now  who 
spelled  these  words,  the  scholar  or  the  teacher  ?  The 
teacher,  of  course  ;  and  he  might,  with  a  great  deal 
more  propriety,  have  told  the  pupil  in  plain,  unequivocal 
terms :  and  the  latter  might,  with  a  great  deal  more 
honesty,  have  asked  the  teacher  in  a  plain,  frank  man- 
ner, for  the  answer,  than  for  both  of  them  to  deceive 
each  other. 

4.  There  is  still  another  bad  practice  that  deserves 
notice  here.  It  is  that  of  telling  the  pupil  outright  as 
soon  as  he  hesitates,  or  before  he  has  time  to  answer 
This  practice  prevails  to  the  greatest  extent  in  read- 
ing, though  it  extends  to  all  other  branches.  It  will 
be  readily  recognized  in  the  first  by  a  reference  to  a 
common  practice  with  young  beginners.  Some  teach- 
ers are  in  the  habit,  as  soon  as  a  child  hesitates  upon 
a  word  or  sentence,  to  pronounce  it  for  him  at  once. 
I  have  seen  whole  recitations  conducted  in  that  way, 
the  teacher  pronouncing  at  least  three-fourths  of  the 
words,  and  the  child  drawling  them  out  after  him ; 
after  which  both  would  seem  satisfied,  the  child  that 
he  had  said  his  lesson,  and  the  teacher  that  he  had 
said  it  to  him.  But  the  practice  is  carried  into  other 
branches.    We  shall  give  but  one  illustration. 

I  remember  listening  once  to  a  recitation  from  a 
class  (or  teacher  rather),  in  what  was  called  a  High 


RECITATION.  135 

School.  The  lesson  was  in  Physiology,  and  on  those 
most  interesting  topics,  "Digestion  and  Circulation." 
The  teacher  commenced  by  asking  the  questions  from 
the  book ;  and  having  a  good  verbal  memory,  a  ready 
tongue  and  more  self-conceit  than  judgment,  he,  in 
almost  every  instance,  before  the  pupil  had  time  to 
respond,  would  commence  telling  him  the  answer, 
sometimes  graciously  condescending  to  ask  the  pupil 
at  the  close  if  it  was  not  so.  And  though  the  lesson 
lasted  over  half  an  hour,  I  am  sure  there  was  not  a 
half-dozen  questions  answered  by  the  pupils  without 
an  interruption  from  the  teacher;  and  at  least  fixe 
sixths  of  them  were  answered  by  him  alone.  A  few 
of  the  pupils,  judging  from  appearance,  had  prepared 
the  lesson  with  the  evident  intention  of  having  the 
pleasure  of  reciting  it.  To  them  his  ofnciousness 
seemed  annoying ;  for,  when  the  question  was  asked, 
and  they  were  about  to  respond,  and  when  the 
teacher,  either  fearing  lest  some  one  might  suspect 
his  knowledge,  or  wishing  to  astonish  some  one  with 
it,  would  strike  in  and  crowd  them  off,  there  were 
evident  manifestations  of  disappointment.  Others, 
less  sensitive,  seemed  to  take  it  patiently,  probably 
from  greater  respect  for  the  wisdom  and  learning  of 
the  teacher,  or  possibly  because  it  wTas  a  very  easy 
way  of  reciting  the  lesson.  Now,  this  case  is  by  no 
means  an  exception ;  others  could  have  been  selected 
equally  faulty. 

Again  :  the  habit  that  some  pupils  have  of  waiting  in 
recitation  until  they  receive  "a  start"  from  the  teacher, 

I  falls  properly  under  this  head,  as  the  practice  is  most 
probably  induced  by  the  failings  last  alluded  to.  A  dis- 
tinguished educator  in  Ohio,  in  speaking  of  this  class 
of  pupils,  compares  them  to  an  old  rickety  pump,  into 


136  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

which  a  few  pailfuls  of  water  must  be  poured  before 
any  can  be  pumped  out,  which,  when  obtained,  is  but 
a  sickly  stream ;  and  as  soon  as  the  pumping  ceases, 
the  connection  is  broken,  and  all  efforts  to  obtain  more 
are  fruitless,  until  more  water  is  introduced  from 
above.  The  comparison  is  a  good  one,  since  the  abil- 
ity of  these  pupils  to  recite  seems  to  depend  almost 
entirely  upon  the  extraneous  efforts  of  the  teacher. 

Now,  all  these  forms  of  prompting  exist,  and  per- 
haps many  more  slightly  different.  Their  deleterious 
consequences  may  be  readily  seen.  Some  of  thern 
pander  to  the  laziness  of  the  pupils,  some  to  their 
pride.  Some  cultivate  deceit  and  falsehood,  some 
superficial  habits.  Some,  again,  are  absolutely  annoy- 
ing and  even  insulting,  while  the  whole  brood  are 
destructive  of  manly  independence  and  progress.  The 
remedy  for  all  these  forms  of  evil  is  short  and  simple, 
and  perhaps  has  been  anticipated  already. 

1.  For  the  first,  in  asking  questions,  avoid,  so  far  as 
possible,  all  that  admit  of  the  answers,  Yes  or  No.  Let 
them  be  put  in  such  a  shape  that  the  pupil  shall  have 
the  entire  benefit  of  the  answer.  This  is  his  by  right; 
and  he  just  as  certainly  languishes  without  it,  as  the 
tender  plants  do  without  the  showers.  Take  the  first 
example,  for  instance,  under  the  first  case.  Instead  of 
the  labored  and  childish  repetition  there  exhibited, 
the  question  should  stand  simply  thus:  "How  do  you 
add  fractions  that  have  not  a  common  denominator  ?  " 
And  the  answer  should  follow  without  a  single  word 
from  the  teacher,  until  the  pupil  has  done  with  it ; 
then,  if  it  become  necessary,  let  explanations  and  illus- 
trations follow.  For  beginners,  or  those  less  familiar 
with  the  subject,  it  might  be  staked  off  something 
after  this  manner: 


RECITATION.  137 


First  Step.  The  redaction  or  changing  of  the  terms. 
This  consists  of  two  operations  :  1.  Those  relating  to 
the  denominator;  2.  Those  relating  to  the  numerator. 

Second  Step.  The  addition  of  the  numerators. 

Third  Step.  The  disposition  of  the  denominator. 

Fourth  Step.  The  reduction  of  the  fraction,  should 
it  be  necessary. 

2.  As  to  the  second  case  of  prompting:  in  asking 
questions,  let  them  be  as  brief  and  pointed  as  possible, 
neither  offering  nor  denying  a  choice  of  words,  and 
conveying  no  allusion  whatever  to  the  answer.  Take 
the  example  given  under  the  second  variety  of  prompt- 
ing. Instead  of  the  strained  effort  to  make  the  an- 
swers as  short  and  easy  as  possible,  let  it  stand  simply 
thus  :  "  What  is  Etymology  ?  "  "  What  is  Syntax  ?  " 
"  What  are  nouns  ?  "  "Name  the  different  classes, and 
define  them."  "Name  the  properties  of  nouns,  and 
define  them,"  etc. 

3.  As  to  the  third  case:  after  the  question  is  asked 
so  as  not  to  allow  the  child  to  choose  between  two 
things,  let  the  teacher  mind  his  own  business  until  the 
child  has  answered,  or  at  least  made  an  effort  to  an- 
swer it — i.  e.,  let  him  not,  by  word,  tone  of  voice,  look 
or  gesture,  convey  any  knowledge  to  the  pupil  as  to 
whether  he  is  right  or  wrong  until  he  has  either  fin- 
ished the  entire  answer  or  failed  ;  in  which  latter  case 
it  may  either  be  corrected  by  the  teacher — though  this 
should  be  rare — or  passed  to  another  pupil,  and  when 
answered,  should  be  returned  to  the  one  making  the 
first  mistake  for  his  answer  as  corrected,  and  so  of 
all  the  others.  Take  the  first  question  under  the  third 
case.  Instead  of  what  is  there  stated,  let  it  stand 
thus:  "What  is  the  shape  of  the  earth?"  etc.     Take 

the  one  on  proportion.     Let  it  stand  thus:  "State  the 
12 


138  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING 

rule  for  proportion  :  1.  When  the  answer  ought  to  he 
greater  than  the  third  term ;  2.  When  it  ought  to  he 
less,  and  the  reasons  for,"  etc.  For  the  other  form  of 
this  variety,  take  the  question  given  under  it,  viz.  : 
"Where  does  the  Mississippi  rise ?"  etc.,  which  is  a 
proper  enough  form  for  the  question,  the  difficulty  here 
lying  in  the  mode  of  answer.  Let  the  answer  be  given 
without  any  intervening  questions  or  suggestions,  either 
by  word  or  by  act.  And  in  cases  like  that  given  in 
analysis  or  parsing,  let  there  be  no  guessing,  no  "draw- 
ing out,"  no  hesitating  for  suggestion  from  either 
teacher  or  pupil,  no  rising  slides  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil,  no  suggestions,  no  winking,  nodding  or  negating, 
to  indicate  to  the  pupil  whether  he  is  right  or  wrong. 
4.  In  reading,  and  in  all  other  recitations,  avoid 
the  practice  of  assisting  the  pupil  whenever  he  hesi- 
tates upon  the  pronunciation  of  a  word,  or  the  utter- 
ance of  a  sentence,  making  it  a  positive  injunction 
that  the  lesson  is  to  be  so  well  prepared  before  recita- 
tion, that,  especially  in  reading,  all  the  words  can  be 
named  at  sight ;  for  if  they  can  not,  the  child  should 
be  remanded  at  once  to  easier  lessons,  even  to  the 
"  cards  "  or  word  and  object  lessons,  until  he  acquires 
the  ability  to  pronounce  readily.  It  accomplishes 
little  or  no  good,  for  a  pupil  to  drag  his  slow  length 
along  in  reading,  where  not  only  the  meaning  of  the 
words,  but  their  connection  is  lost  by  his  long  inter- 
vals or  pauses.  Again  :  avoid  the  practice  of  show- 
ing the  pupil  how  well  you  can  recite  yourself,  at 
least  until  he  has  had  the  first  trial,  which  by  right 
and  duty  belongs  to  him.  This  practice  is  so  annoy- 
ing, it  would  seem  that  no  one  who  had  witnessed  its 
evil  effects  would  ever  tolerate  it,  much  less  resort  to  it. 
In  addition  to  the  annoyance,  it  discourages  all  effort 


RECITATION. 


139 


on  the  part  of  those  who  desire  to  learn,  and  pampers 
the  laziness  of  those  who  have  not  the  desire.  The 
elocution  exercises  may  form  an  exception  to  this  rule. 
Lastly  :  the  practice  of  assisting  pupils  to  the  first 
few  words  of  the  answer,  is  doubtless  the  offspring  of 
the  last  mentioned  evil.  To  correct  it,  never  allow 
yourself  to  be  guilty  of  the  practice  yourself,  and  never 
allow  your  pupils  to  presume  upon  your  indulgence 
in  this  respect.  The  understanding  should  be,  that 
the  first  word  is  just  as  important  for  the  pupil  to 
learn,  as  the  second  or  third  ;  and  that  the  integrity, 
as  well  as  the  usefulness  of  knowledge,  will  be  much 
impaired,  if  it  is  based  upon  as  uncertain  a  process, 
as  that  described  under  this  head. 

Article  IV— Specific  Methods. 

It  only  remains  now  to  speak  of  the  several  modes 
of  recitation,  in  which  an  application  of  these  specific 
directions  may  be  made.  For  convenience,  they  may 
be  classified  as  follows : 

I.  The  Interrogative  Method. 

II.  The  Topical  Method. 
III.  The  Didactic  Method. 

The  first  is  one  of  almost  universal  use,  and  the  one 
in  which  most,  if  not  all  the  directions  given  above, 
will  apply.  We  shall  speak  of  it  under  the  several 
forms  in  which  the  answers  are  given. 


Section  1 — The  Concert  Method,  or  that  in  which 
all  recite  at  once,  is  one  in  general  use,  and  is  not  with- 
out its  uses  and  abuses.  1.  It  is  useful  in  awakening 
an  interest  in  class  and  in  school.  2.  It  aids  those  who 
may  be  too  timid  otherwise  to  recite,  to  overcome  their 
diffidence.     3.  It  gives  all  an  opportunity  to  recite  the 


140  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

whole,  or  a  greater  part  of  the  lesson,  in  the  same 
time.  4.  It  offers  the  best  opportunity  to  secure  uni- 
formity, and  to  cultivate  the  voice;  and  it  shows  a 
school  off  to  better  advantage  :  though,  whether  this 
last  is  really  a  desirable  object,  will  depend  altogether 
upon  the  style  of  exhibition.  If  the  object  of  the 
show  is  to  secure  answers  to  the  greatest  number  of 
questions,  without  any  reference  to  where  they  come 
from,  it  would  then  be  objectionable.  If,  however, 
the  display  consists  in  better-drilled  voices,  greater 
uniformity,  and  more  promptness  in  manner,  etc.,  all 
of  which  may  be  secured  by  this  method,  then  it  be- 
comes a  decided  advantage.  The  chief  benefits  of 
this  method,  however,  are  confined  to  reading  and 
spelling,  which  have  been  described  elsewhere  ;  but 
it  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  reciting  rules  and 
tables  of  currency,  weight,  measure,  and  in  accurately 
arranged  definitions,  and  in  the  declensions  and  con- 
jugations of  words. 

Some  of  the  more  important  abuses  of  this  method, 
are  the  following:  I.  It  offers  an  opportunity  to  any 
that  do  not  know  the  lesson  very  well,  to  attach  them- 
selves, as  it  were,  to  those  that  do,  and  thereby  appear 
to  a  better  advantage  than  they  really  deserve.  2.  It 
affords  an  opportunity  to  those  who  may  desire  to 
conceal  mistakes,  intentional  deviations  and  ignorance, 
to  effect  their  purposes;  though  an  experienced  ear 
will  generally  detect  any  thing  of  this  kind.  3.  Un- 
less carefully  guarded,  it  has  a  tendency  to  cultivate 
an  unnatural  and  monotonous  style.  4.  Those  who 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  reciting  too  exclusively  in 
concert,  are  for  the  most  part,  unable  to  recite  alone. 
They  do  not  acquire  the  strength  and  confidence,  to 
enable  them  to  stand  without  the  "  props  and  stays  n 


RECITATION.  141 

of  other  voices,  Therefore,  while  this  method  pos- 
sesses unquestionable  merits,  and  many  advantages, 
it  should  be  used  with  great  caution,  never  exclusively, 
and  never  to  usurp  the  place  of  other  forms. 

Section  2 — Consecutive  Method. — This  method  is 
one  of  long  standing  and  perhaps  of  universal  adop- 
tion. It  is  that  in  which  the  members  of  the  class 
are  so  arranged  that  the  questions  or  exercises  uni- 
formly commence  at  a  given  place  in  class,  and  pass 
on  in  consecutive  order,  from  head  to  foot.  This  plan 
is  not  without  its  merits  and  demerits. 

1.  The  labor  of  conducting  recitations  after  this 
mode,  is  less  than  in  most  others,  the  teacher  having 
no  other  special  care  than  merely  to  ask  the  questions, 
and  to  see  that  they  are  answered  properly. 

2.  It  has  the  advantage  of  order  and  system ;  and 
for  advanced  pupils,  or  those  who  can  resist  the 
temptation  of  inattention,  may  be  used  with  safety. 

3.  It  affords  an  opportunity  for  pupils  to  compete 
for  position — if  indeed  this  is  an  advantage;  and  we 
think  it  may  become  useful  under  proper  restrictions. 

But  the  objections  to  this  method,  when  used  with 
a  certain  class  of  students,  and  without  great  care, 
wrill  more  than  overbalance  the  benefits  arising  out 
of  it. 

1.  It  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  pupil  to  neglect 
certain  portions  of  the  lesson.  They  will  prepare  only 
such  portions  of  it  as  will  most  likely  fall  to  them  to 
recite.  Hence,  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  pupils, 
evea  after  arranging  themselves  in  class — if  they  are 
allowed  their  books  in  recitation — first  ascertaining 
their  location  in  class,  then  measuring  oft'  a  place 
in  the  lesson  corresponding  to  it,  and  then  commenc- 


142  THE    ART   OF    TEACHING. 

ing  a  vigorous  preparation  of  that  part  of  the  les- 
son, paying  little  or  no  attention  to  any  other  part. 

2.  If  this  custom  alone  is  adopted,  after  a  pupil  has 
once  recited,  he  is  apt  to  feel  no  further  responsibility; 
and  for  all  practical  purposes,  might  almost  as  well  be 
excused  from  the  class,  after  he  has  "  said  "  his  part 
of  the  lesson. 

3.  In  large  classes,  where  a  fixed  arrangement  is 
observed,  there  is  danger  of  slighting  some  altogether, 
and  hence  of  inducing  them  to  slight  their  lessons 
until  such  time  when  they  will  be  most  likely  to  be 
called  upon  for  recitation. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  the  writer  once  to  be  a 
member  of  such  a  class  of  about  50  members,  arrang- 
ed in  alphabetical  order.  The  lessons  were  of  such  a 
character,  that  it  was  not  absolutely  necessary  that 
more  than  about  half  a  dozen  pupils  should  recite  at 
one  recitation — and  that  was  about  the  average  num- 
ber— so  that  each  one  of  us  had  the  privilege  of  re- 
citing as  often  as  about  once  in  ten  days.  And  I 
well  remember  the  demonstrations  that  were  made  by 
some  of  the  class  after  passing  the  ordeal  of  "their 
turn."  The  book  would  be  thrown  aside  with  the  ex- 
clamation, "  There,  I  shall  have  nothing  more  to 
do  this  week,  sure ! "  One  can  easily  see  that  the 
knowledge  and  discipline  obtained  in  this  way,  are 
worthless. 

Section  3.— The  Promiscuous  Method  is  one  which, 
perhaps,  has  more  merits  than  either  of  those  just 
described.  It  consists,  as  its  name  implies,  in  asking 
questions  of  any  member  of  the  class,  irrespective  of 
time,  place  or  order.     It  has  these  advantages  : 

1.  It  compels  all  to  get  the  whole  lesson,  since  no 


RECITATION.  143 

one  can  know  how  much  he  will  be  called  upon  to 
recite,  or  when  or  where. 

2.  It  checks  any  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  pupil 
to  be  inattentive,  since  each  one  is  liable,  at  any  mo- 
ment, to  be  called  upon  to  recite. 

3.  It  forces  all  to  keep  in  mind  the  connection ;  for, 
where  the  method  is  properly  followed,  the  teacher 
may,  at  any  time,  and  at  any  stage  of  the  answer,  ar- 
rest it,  and  require  some  one  else  to  complete  it. 

4.  It  acts  as  a  kind  of  a  check  upon  most  of  the 
evils  described  in  the  foregoing. 

It  has,  however,  the  following  objections,  if  not 
properly  administered. 

1.  When  the  pupil,  after  having  been  once  called 
upon,  feels  sure  he  will  not  be  called  upon  again,  he  is 
tempted  to  inattention  in  the  remainder  of  the  lesson. 
In  this  it  is  similar  to  the  second  method,  only  in  that 
the  inattention  may  occur  both  before  and  after  being 
called  upon;  while  in  this,  only  after,  since  the  pupil  is 
obliged  to  keep  a  sharp  watch  for  his  turn.  But  even 
this  abuse  can  be  obviated  by  taking  advantage  of 
such  pupils,  and  calling  upon  them  three  or  four  times 
in  succession,  in  the  same  recitation. 

2.  It  requires  more  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
in  order  to  distribute  the  lesson  rightly  among  the 
members  of  the  class.  But  this  can  hardly  be  ealled 
an  objection,  since  the  benefits  thence  arising,  will 
more  than  compensate  for  any  additional  care.  On 
the  whole,  this  variety  of  the  Interrogative  method,  in 
its  many  applications,  and  with  proper  care,  is  subject 
to  fewer  objections  than  almost  any  other. 

Section  4 — The  Silent  Method. — Another  variety 
closely  allied  to  this  last,  deserves  special  notice.     For 


144  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

the  sake  of  distinction  we  shall  call  it  the  Silent  Method 
It  is  described  thus :  The  question  i3  asked  the  whole 
class,  and  all  are  required  to  answer  mentally  or  silently 
— not  merely  to  call  to  mind  the  answers,  or  to  think  of 
the  conclusions,  but  to  examine  carefully  the  processes 
by  which  they  are  reached ;  and  when  this  is  done,  to 
indicate  it  by  a  given  signal.  When  all  the  members 
have  thus  signaled,  or  after  the  lapse  of  a  reasonable 
time,  let  some  one  of  the  pupils  be  selected  to  give  the 
oral  or  written  answer,  or  solution. 

This  method  is  thus  described  :  The  question  is  an- 
nounced distinctly  to  the  whole  class.  The  time  elaps- 
ing between  the  asking  and  answering  should  resemble 
that  which  usually  occurs  between  the  flash  of  the 
lightning  and  the  report  of  the  thunder.  It  should 
be  impressively  still.  This  gives  every  one  time,  not 
only  to  get  the  full  import  of  every  question,  but 
really  to  answer  every  one  mentally,  and  then  to  re- 
view it,  when  the  oral  answer  is  given,  which,  if  cor- 
rect, may  be  indicated  by  the  pupils'  assuming  the 
proper  posture;  but  if  incorrect,  and  as  soon  as  incor- 
rect, the  signal  should  be  repeated,  when  the  one  recit- 
ing is  arrested  in  his  answer,  and  another  called  upon 
to  complete  it,  etc. 

This  plan  brings  more  minds  into  active  and  vigor- 
ous exercise  than  almost  any  other.  No  one  can  really 
escape,  since  in  case  of  a  failure,  the  plan  itself  reports 
the  delinquent ;  and  if  false  reports  are  given,  they  may 
soon  be  detected  by  the  teacher.  If  he  have  suspicions 
of  this  nature,  let  him  require  the  pupil  thus  sus- 
pected to  recite ;  and  a  few  exposures  will  generally 
cure  the  worst  cases  of  this  species  of  falsifying.  The 
only  objection  that  really  operates  against  this  variety, 
is  that  it  requires  a  little  longer  time.     But  the  addi- 


RECITATION  145 

tional  discipline,  in  most  cases,  will  more  than  com- 
pensate for  any  loss  of  this  kind.  It  requires  also  a 
considerable  previous  culture  and  discipline  to  make 
it  work  well ;  but  it  may  then  be  used  in  nearly  all 
kinds  of  recitation. 

Sec  5 — The  Monitorial  Method. — Another  variety 
called  the  Monitorial,  has  been  adopted  by  a  few  with 
success ;  though  the  experience  of  the  best  teachers,  I 
believe,  has  condemned  its  general  use.  The  only  in- 
stance in  which  I  remember  to  have  seen  it  employed 
with  any  marked  success,  was  in  the  Model  Depart- 
ment of  the  Connecticut  State  Normal  School ;  and 
in  this  case  it  was  not  strictly  monitorial.  A  class  of 
about  twenty  girls  was  reciting  in  history.  One  of 
their  number  (the  moni tress)  sat  up  m  an  elevated  seat, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  class,  holding  in  her  hand 
a  set  of  cards,  numbered  and  corresponding  with  du- 
plicates held,  one  by  each  member  of  the  class.  As 
the  teacher  asked  the  questions,  the  monitress  drew  a 
card  from  her  pack,  not  knowing  herself  what  one, 
called  out  the  number  to  the  class,  and  the  pupil  hold- 
ing its  duplicate,  arose  and  recited.  The  teacher,  in 
this  instance,  did  nothing  but  simply  ask  the  questions. 
The  class  was  responsible  for  the  balance,  even  the  cor- 
rection of  any  errors  that  were  committed.  There  are 
other  forms  of  this  variety  differing  slightly  from  any 
hitherto  described  ;  one  of  which,  by  way  of  distinction, 
we  shall  call  reciprocal.  It  is  nearly  monitorial,  only 
every  member  of  the  class  is  a  monitor,  at  the  same  time 
all  are  pupils.  The  peculiarities  of  this  variety  con- 
sist in  placing  the  whole  recitation  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupils,  each  one,  according  to  pre-arrangement,  asking 
such  questions  as  come  within  the  scope  of  the  lesson 
13 


146  THE     ART    OF    TEACHING. 

or  review,  and  to  whatever  member  of  the  class  he  may 
choose.  Sometimes  there  is  connected  with  this,  some 
incentive — such,  for  instance,  as  contesting  for  the 
head,  in  which  case,  the  pupil  standing  anywhere  in 
class — say  No.  7 — may  question  any  member  above 
him,  and  in  case  he  ask  a  question  that  can  not  be 
answered  by  the  one  of  whom  he  asks  it,  on  answer 
ing  it  himself,  he  takes  his  place. 

This  plan  is  both  amusing  and  instructive.  The  inter- 
est it  awakens  in  class,  and  the  incentives  it  adds  to  the 
preparation  of  the  lesson  are  surprising;  since  it  must 
be  learned  not  only  to  be  recited  well,  but  so  well  that 
the  pupils  themselves  may  teach  it.  This  plan  but 
slightly  modified,  works  well  in  performing  operations 
at  the  board,  especially  in  the  simple  operations  in 
arithmetic  where  long  columns  of  figures  are  to  be 
added,  or  in  any  others,  where  practice  and  rapidity 
are  required.  Let  the  pupils  contend  in  a  similar 
manner,  or  simply  take  turns  in  performing  rapidly 
various  parts  of  the  operation. 

Section  6 — Miscellaneous  Methods. —  (a)  One  of 
these  varieties,  though  somewhat  limited  in  its  applica- 
tion, is  worthy  of  notice.  For  want  of  a  better  name,  we 
shall  call  it  a  method  by  proxy.  Its  chief  use  is  to  cul- 
tivate ready  and  close  attention,  and  it  may  be  used 
occasionally,  in  nearly  all  the  branches.  It  consists  in 
a  repetition  and  transfer  of  the  question  as  it  comes 
from  the  teacher,  requiring  answer  in  most  cases  from 
those  least  expecting  it.  For  instance,  the  question 
is  announced  by  the  teacher,  when  the  pupil  to  whom 
it  is  directed  rises  and  repeats  it  to  the  class,  and 
calls  upon  some  one  to  answer  it,  who  may  also  be 
required  to  repeat  it,  and  if  unable  to  answer,  may 


RECITATION.  147 

call  upon  some  one  else,  etc.  This  mode,  of  course, 
can  never  be  rendered  general,  its  chief  use  being  to 
cultivate  attention  and  the  ability  to  ask  and  answer 
questions  under  a  variety  of  circumstances. 

(b)  The  practice  of  reciting  by  contests,  or  better 
known  as  "  choosing  sides"  though  of  somewhat  an 
cient  origin,  has  but  few  superiors.  As  a  means  of 
exciting  ?.nd  sustaining  attention,  it  has  few  if  any 
equals.  Many,  doubtless,  can  yet  remember  the  ex- 
citement that  used  to  prevail  at  the  spelling-matches, 
which  in  fact  constituted  about  the  only  attractive 
feature  belonging  to  the  old  usages.  The  same  in- 
terest may  invest  almost  all  other  branches  of  study, 
by  only  submitting  them  to  the  same  influences.  For 
instance,  let  the  class  choose  sides  to  remain  chosen 
for  one,  two,  three  or  four  weeks  at  a  time.  Let  a 
careful  record  of  the  losses  and  gains  of  both  sides,  be 
kept  by  the  teacher,  or  some  one  or  two  of  the  pupils, 
and  reported  to  the  class  once  a  week,  or  at  the  expi- 
ration of  the  time,  if  that  be  deemed  best.  There  are 
many  other  modes  of  keeping  tally,  besides  many 
other  incentives  that  may  be  used  with  this  plan.  This 
practice  also  cultivates  the  power  of  criticism,  since 
pupils  criticise  each  other.  It  also  enables  the  pupils 
to  follow  demonstrations  or  answers  of  any  kind,  ex- 
ercises them  in  the  practice  of  asking  and  answering 
questions,  all  of  which  are  of  great  utility  to  every 
one,  and  especially  those  who  expect  to  teach. 

(c)  The  plan  by  written  questions  and  answers  is  one  that 
ought  to  be  practiced  more  than  it  is,  since  many  that 
can  answer  very  well  orally,  are  nevertheless  incapable 
of  doing  so  by  writing.  The  questions,  in  this  variety, 
may  be  written  on  the  board  or  on  slips  of  paper,  and 


148  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

distributed,  and  answers  prepared  by  the  pupils.  Of 
course,  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  communica- 
tions. In  this  manner,  a  great  deal  of  time  may  be 
saved,  since  the  teacher  may  be  employed  about  some- 
thing else,  while  the  class  is  preparing  answers,  etc. 

Section  7 — The  Topical  Method. — This  method, 
for  intrinsic  merit,  perhaps,  has  not  a  single  equal  in 
the  whole  list.  It  levels  in  one  bold  stroke  nearly  all 
the  evils  and  inconveniences  attached  to  the  other  va- 
rieties, and  aims  a  death-blow  to  superficial  habits  of 
recitation,  since  it  throws  the  whole  responsibility 
upon  the  individual  pupil.  This  is  just  precisely 
what  is  needed  to  make  independent  and  self-reliant 
scholars.  Its  chief  benefits,  however,  are  confined  to 
advanced  classes.  It  also  admits  of  several  varieties, 
a  few  of  which  we  shall  name. 

(a)  The  mere  announcement  of  the  subject  or  topic, 
while  reciting,  is  one.  Instead  of  the  enunciation  of 
the  whole  question,  as  in  the  case  of  the  preceding, 
the  teacher  simply  assigns  a  topic — embracing  more 
or  less,  to  suit  the  capacity  of  the  class — upon  which 
the  pupil  is  expected  to  recite.  For  instance,  instead 
of  saying,  How  do  }7ou  multiply  a  fraction  by  a  whole 
number?  A  whole  number  by  a  fraction?  A  frac- 
tion by  a  fraction?  etc.  The  teacher  simply  says,  or 
writes,  "The  multiplication  of  fractions;"  and  the 
pupil  proceeds,  at  once,  to  discuss  the  whole  subject, 
naming  and  describing  the  several  cases  in  their  order. 
Instead  of  asking  all  the  questions  as  in  the  example 
given  in  grammar,  he  simply  says,  "  Etymology ," 
"  Syntax,"  "  Noun,"  "Properties,"  "Relations,"  etc.; 
and  each  one  of  these  topics  is  then  taken  up  and  dis 


' 


RECITATION.  149 

posed  of,  without  farther  assistance  from  the  teacher, 
except  slight  explanations,  as  they  may  he  needed. 

In  geography,  where  this  plan  is  peculiarly  appro- 
priate, in  describing  the  mountains  of  Europe,  for 
instance,  instead  of  asking  the  position,  altitude,  name 
and  other  peculiarities  of  each  range  or  spur,  the 
topic  would  simply  be,  "  Mountains  of  Europe ; " 
and  so  of  the  rivers.  In  describing  the  seas,  lakes 
etc.,  it  would  be  "  Bodies  of  Water. "  In  describing 
a  particular  state  or  territory,  the  following  list  of 
topics  might  be  suggestive  enough.  1.  Position,  in 
reference  to  Latitude  and  Longitude  ;  2.  Boundary ; 
3.  Area;  4.  Population;  5.  Bodies  of  water;  6.  Riv- 
ers; 7.  Surface,  including  mountains  etc.;  8.  Soil; 
9.  Climate  ;  10.  Productions,  including  the  three  king- 
doms of  nature,  etc.;  11.  Chief  towns  and  Capitals; 
12.  Employment;  13.  Education:  14.  Internal  im- 
provements ;  15.  Curiosities,  and  any  others  that  may 
be  desirable. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  advantages.  1.  The 
labor  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  less,  while  the  advan- 
tages to  the  pupil  are  greater.  2.  It  presents  a  con- 
nected view  of  a  subject.  The  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired is  available.  3.  It  strengthens  memory  and 
cultivates  the  powers  of  the  understanding  and  judg- 
ment. 4.  It  cultivates  good  manners,  and  the  powers 
of  expression  and  description.  It  teaches  to  tell 
straight  stories,  and  to  describe  accurately.  5.  It  cul- 
tivates independence,  originality,  completeness  and 
comprehensiveness  of  thought  and  style.  6.  It  cor- 
rects nearly  all  the  abuses  incident  to  the  other  modes. 

The  objections  to  it  are  few,  weak  and  readily  re- 
moved or  prevented.  1.  Its  use  is  confined  chiefly  to 
upils  somewhat  advanced,  the  Transition  and  Sub- 


150  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

jective.  2.  It  will  require  time  to  initiate  pupils  into 
this  method,  especially  if  they  have,  as  Mr.  Page  says, 
been  subject  to  the  "Drawing-out  and  Pounding-in 
system." 

(b).  Another  form  or  use  of  this  method  consists  in 
the  use  of  diagrams  and  analyses.  This  variety  em- 
braces the  practice  of  mapping  out  subjects,  giving 
the  generic  terms  and  placing  their  specifics  in  order, 
giving,  in  many  instances,  the  entire  analysis,  by  a 
process  of  generalization;  and  it  is  questicnable, 
whether  any  other  practice  is  more  useful  to  advanced 
pupils,  or  those  who  wish  to  teach.  It  is  the  very 
key  to  investigation  of  a  higher  order,  since  it  ar- 
ranges the  materials  of  knowledge  and  thought — the 
tools  of  progress — in  such  order,  that  they  become 
available  in  further  researches. 

The  advantages  of  this  variety  are  similar  to  others 
just  described ;  and  the  only  objection  I  am  able  to 
arge  against  it,  consists  in  its  abuse.  Some  teachers, 
seeing  its  beauty  and  utility  in  a  few  things,  foolishly 
attempt  to  apply  it  not  only  to  all  subjects,  but  to  all 
grades  of  advancement ;  while  it  is  strictly  a  sub- 
jective process.  And  further,  they  multiply  divisions 
and  subdivisions  to  such  an  extent,  as  rather  to  con- 
fuse and  confound,  than  render  intelligible  the  subjects 
to  which  they  apply  it.  They  should  not  only  remem- 
ber that  facts  come  before  their  philosophic  arrange- 
ment, but  that  they  confuse  the  mind,  rather  than 
enlighten  and  strengthen  it,  when  they  are  presented 
in  such  masses. 

Section  8. — The  Didactic  or  Lecturing  Method 
has  already  been  described.  Its  use  in  recitation  is 
somewhat  limited;   though,  for   certain    classes   and 


RECITATION.  151 

certain  purposes,  it  produces,  when  properly  employed, 
most  remarkable  effects.  There  are  two  principal 
varieties,  viz. :  conversation  and  lectures.  They  are  suf- 
ficiently explained  elsewhere,  to  be  comprehended 
without  further  description. 

Both  these  varieties,  however,  are  subject  to  great 
abuse.  The  excessive  talking  and  lecturing  in  which 
some  teachers  indulge,  are  alike  ruinous  to  their  own 
usefulness  and  the  pupil's  improvement.  The  teacher 
who  makes  the  least  ado,  in  conducting  the  exercises 
of  the  school,  is  the  one  who  will, in  the  end,  have 
accomplished  the  most  for  his  pupils,  provided  he  so 
dispose  of  these  exercises,  as  to  secure  the  greatest 
amount  of  thought  and  action,  upon  the  part  of 
pupils. 

But  as  this  topic  has  been  discussed  elsewhere,  we 
close  this  chapter  by  a  brief  reference  to  the  impor- 
tance of  every  teacher's  having  a  variety  of  methods, 
and  that  lie  study  the  philosophy  of  them,  so  that  he 
may  wisely  apply  them.  Every  one  knows  that  the 
teacher  who  has  but  one  plan,  and  that  perhaps  an 
old  edition  stereotyped,  soon  renders  his  subjects  mo- 
notonous, wearies  the  patience  of  his  pupils,  and  cir- 
cumscribes the  limits  of  their  progress.  By  the  very 
necessities  of  the  case,  he  can  only  reach  a  few,  and 
call  out  but  that  limited  amount  of  talent,  for  which 
his  "plan"  maybe  peculiarly  fitted ;  while  he  who 
has  a  variety,  and  that  variety  based  upon  philosoph- 
ical principles,  may  wisely  suit  his  plans  to  every  in- 
dividual case. 

We  have  therefore  presented,  under  three  general 

leads  as  generic,  some  twelve  or  fifteen  varieties.    But 

it  will  not  be  inferred,  of  course,  that  this  exhausts 

:he  list ;  for,  while  it  will  be  found  that  all  the  meth- 


152  THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 

ods  and  varieties  here  described,  as  well  as  others  prac- 
ticed by  the  profession  generally,  are  referable  to  some 
one  of  these  methods,  or  some  of  their  varieties;  yet 
each  one  of  these  again  admits  of  a  great  many  slight 
modifications  in  the  applications,  which,  of  course, 
would  be  too  tedious  for  description  here.  The  teacher 
who  acquaints  himself  with  their  nature  and  design, 
and  also  with  the  peculiar  wants  of  his  pupils,  will 
find  little  difficulty  in  making  his  own  applications  of 
them.  We  have  therefore  avoided  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  multiplication  of  special  modes,  believing 
that  the  few  given  are  not  only  distinct  enough  in 
their  characteristics,  but  comprehensive  enough  to 
admit  of  all  necessary  changes,  and  to  embrace  all  pos- 
sible varieties. 


154 


THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 


BUSINESS. 


SYiJNTOFSIS    IV. 

/  Habits  of  neatness,  order,  promptness 
Objects,    etc.  -I  Punctuality.    Time.    Place.    Manner 
V  Aid  in  other  duties  and  emergencies. 


f  Change  of  classes.    Communications. 
Bequisites.     •<   A  written  order  of  duties,  etc. 
V.  Close  attention.    Self-denial. 


k       Manneu. 


I 


Dispatch,    without  haste  or  confusion. 
With  a  moderate  degree  of  stillness. 
With  scrupulous  care  and  accuracy. 


SCIIOOL   BUSINESS.  155 


CHAPTER   IV. 

SCHOOL    BUSINESS. 

The  object  of  the  present  chapter  shall  be  to  show, 
iii  as  brief  a  space  as  possible,  some  of  the  uses  of  the 
school  life.  It  might  be  a  question  with  some  whether 
there  is  any  necessity  for  such  a  topic  in  the  "  School- 
room Duties;"  but,  since  there  is  a  class  of  duties  that 
do  not  really  belong,  either  to  study  or  to  recitation;  and 
since,  if  they  are  not  provided  for,  they  are  either  con- 
stantly interrupting  those  exercises,  or  else  neglected 
entirely,  it  therefore  seems  proper  and  right  that  such 
a  chapter  be  introduced. 

It  is  a  fact  well  attested  by  the  opinions  of  our  wisest 
men,  as  well  as  by  common  observation,  that  school 
training,  notwithstanding  its  many  excellencies,  falls 
short  of  meeting  all  the  demands  of  education.  It 
does  not,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  prepare  the 
young  for  the  duties,  dangers,  and  responsibilities  of 
life.  Too  many  leave  school  with  thoughtless,  slovenly 
and  disorderly  habits,  notwithstanding  they  may  be 
mathematical,  philosophical,  learned  in  the  knowledge 
of  books. 

Now  it  is  not  proposed  that  the  school  should  do 
overy  thing  for  the  pupil,  such  as  furnishing  him  with 

trade,  or  employment,  or  even  giving  him  a  very 
large  stock  of  practical  knowledge.  Indeed,  this  can 
lot  be  expected;  for  nothing  but  the  actual  struggle 
rith  the  life  duties  themselves  will  ever  give  that 
thorough  preparation  which  these  duties  demand.    But 


156  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

that  the  school  duties  might  be  rendered  more  effect- 
ive in  this  respect ;  that  they  should,  become  a  kind 
of  foreshadowing  of  these  duties,  and,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  actual  preparation,  are  conclusions  inferable, 
both  from  their  nature  and  design,  as  well  as  from  the 
lamentable  deficiencies  that  exist  in  reference  to  such 
culture.  That  the  education  of  the  child  and  the 
man  should  be  a  life  preparation  for  life's  duties  and 
destiny,  is  a  truth  that  can  not  be  too  thoroughly  in- 
culcated ;  and  that  the  school  life  should,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, be  an  epitome  of  that  world  life  upon  which  the 
child  is  soon  to  enter,  is  another  truth  of  equal  sig- 
nificance. We  shall  therefore  treat  the  above  named 
subject  under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  The  objects  or  necessity  for  such  an  application 
of  school  duties. 

2.  The  requisites  and  means  for  carrying  it  into  effect. 

3.  The  mode  of  conducting  this  department  of  school 
duties. 

Article   1— Objects,  etc. 

If  it  be  true  that  the  school-room  does  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  this  life  preparation,  etc.,  then  indeed  does 
it  follow,  that  its  exercises  should  look  to  that  one 
great  object  as  a  central  and  leading  idea,  about  which, 
or  rather  to  which,  all  others  should  bend ;  for  it  is 
scarcely  possible,  and  by  no  means  probable,  that 
unless  some  special  pains  are  taken,  these  results 
will  ever  be  secured.  It  is  pertinent,  therefore,  to  in- 
quire, in  the  first  place,  after  the  habits  and  traits  of 
character  that  render  children  and  men  and  women 
useful ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  how  far  these  duties 
can  be  rendered  efficient  in  the  formation  and  develop* 
ment  of  these  habits  and  traits 


SCHOOL   BUSINESS.  157 

Section  1 — Habits  of  Neatness,  Cleanliness  and 
Order. — These  are  habits  of  acknowledged  merit,  but 
at  the  same  time  subject  to  woeful  neglect.  How  far, 
then,  can  the  actual  duties  of  the  school  be  rendered 
efficacious,  and  how  far  can  special  duties  be  intro- 
duced that  shall  not  conflict  with  these,  and  still  be 
the  instruments  in  the  formation  of  these  habits,  are 
questions  that  ought  to  be  considered. 

The  position  is  assumed  in  the  Science  of  Education, 
that  neatness  and  cleanliness,  and  indeed  all  forms  of 
outward  refinement,  as  well  as  heart  culture,  keep 
exact  pace  with  the  march  of  intelligence,  provided 
always,  that  the  subject  of  culture  is  a  fair  one,  and 
the  system  philosophical.  This  position  is  true  be- 
yond controversy,  or  else  education  is  a  failure;  and 
we  add  here,  that  when  these  effects  are  not  produced, 
the  teacher  may  be  sure  that  something  is  wrong.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  with  every  increase  in  knowl- 
edge and  development,  there  should  be  a  correspond- 
ing improvement  in  the  personal  appearance — in  the 
habits  of  neatness,  cleanliness,  order,  etc.  But  how 
is  this  effected  ?  Will  the  simple  acquisition  accom- 
plish this,  without  special  direction  and  application? 
We  answer,  not  to  the  full  extent,  any  more  than 
plowing  the  ground,  and  sowing  the  seed  will  produce 
the  harvest.  There  must  be  a  nurture,  a  careful  cul- 
tivation, and  a  husbanding  of  the  stores,  before  the 
precious  grain  can  be  rendered  serviceable  to  man. 
It  is  thus  with  the  processes  of  education.  Its  full 
rewards  are  never  realized,  until  the  uses  of  knowl- 
edge are  fully  established.  But  how  shall  pupils  be 
made  to  feel  the  force  of  this  general  development,  in 
this  special  direction  ?  What  special  exercises  can  be 
adopted  that  will  increase  the  point  and  power  of  gen- 


158  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

eral  acquisition  ?  We  shall  now  endeavor  to  answer 
these  questions. 

1.  Every  child's  desk  or  seat  and  its  premises  should 
be  considered  his  home,  lie  has,  or  ought  to  have, 
books,  papers,  pencils,  slates,  and  various  other  appa- 
ratus, which  are  essentially  his  utensils  and  instru- 
ments for  carrying  on  his  employment.  In  this  it  is 
like  home.  He  has  duties  to  perform ;  he  is  in  this 
respect,  imitating,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the 
scene  that  will  soon  open  before  him  on  a  larger  scale, 
on  the  stage  of  active  life.  Every  child's  domain  in 
the  school-room  being  his  home,  it  should  be  consid- 
ered under  his  special  charge,  while  the  teacher  has 
the  general  supervision.  The  pupil  is  responsible  for 
the  order  and  neatness  of  this  charge,  and  this  respon- 
sibility should  be  just  as  binding  as  that  of  recitation. 
There  should  be  therefore,  in  every  school,  a  standard 
of  order  and  neatness,  just  as  there  is  in  recitation. 
The  position  of  every  article  of  his  stock  of  imple- 
ments, should  all  be  decided  upon.  One  great  reason, 
and  perhaps  the  chief,  that  children  are  not  neater 
and  more  orderly  is  because  they  have  no  standard, 
hence  no  ideal  nor  ideas,  as  to  what  constitutes  true 
order,  further  than  what  they  may  have  gathered 
from  very  uncertain  teaching.  Let  these  standards 
and  tests  be  furnished,  and  contended  for,  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  excellencies  are,  and  it  would  not  be 
long  before  the  whole  face  of  education  and  of  nature 
would  be  changed. 

What  is  true  in  reference  to  the  domain  of  each 
scholar,  and  of  the  whole  school-room,  each  one  being 
responsible  for  that  portion  of  it  in  his  vicinity,  is 
also  true  in  reference  to  each  pupil's  clothing  and  per- 
gonal appearance;  and  as  no  litter  of  any  kind  should 


SCHOOL    BUSINESS. 


159 


be  allowed  to  collectupon  the  premises  of  any  one,  so 
none  should  collect  upon  the  person  of  any  one.  If 
the  house  should  be  clean,  so  should  be  the  house- 
keeper. Let  both  be  insisted  upon  with  the  same  per- 
tinacity with  which  other  duties  are,  and  it  will  not 
be  long  before  these  same  habits  will  reproduce  and 
perpetuate  themselves  in  dress  and  personal  appear- 
ance. The  boys  will  not  leave  mud  or  filth  upon 
their  feet  and  clothing  any  more  than  they  would 
upon  the  floor  or  in  their  desks.  The  girls  will  not 
permit  their  dresses  to  appear  in  a  slovenly  and  slat- 
tern way.  The  school-house  and  yard  will  soon  show 
signs  of  improvement.  The  window-blinds  will  be 
more  neatly  adjusted.  The  shawls,  bonnets  and  hats 
will  be  disposed  of  in  a  more  orderly  manner.  The 
floor  will  be  kept  clean,  and  the  furniture  will  be 
dusted.  The  smaller  pupils  will  catch  the  spirit,  and 
will  soon  learn  that  a  spot  of  mud  or  dirt  upon  their 
clothing  or  their  premises,  is  out  of  order;  that  a  tat- 
tered garment,  unwashed  hand  or  face,  and  uncombed 
hair  are  disorderly;  and  that  filthy  and  slovenly  hab- 
its, vice  and  suffering  are  all  of  the  same  species  of 
disorder.  What  a  world  of  happiness  is  throwm  away 
by  those  wTho  neglect  these  little  things  !  How  our 
homes  might  rejoice  under  the  transforming  influence 
of  this  genius  of  order,  provided  the  same  attention 
were  bestowed  upon  these  things  that  is  bestowed 
upon  arithmetic  and  grammar!  Just  as  if  these  alone 
would  make  people  neat  and  tidy,  contented  and 
happy!  The  happiness  of  the  world  does  not  depend 
half  so  much  upon  these  as  upon  the  little  things  we 
overlook  in  our  rage  after  the  "  mint  and  cum  nun." 
Roses   might   bloom  where  naught  but  briers  grow: 


160  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

life  and  beauty  where  naught  but  desolation  reigns ; 
happiness  where  naught  but  misery. 

In  addition  to  this  standard  of  order  and  neatness 
in  the  school-room,  there  should  also  be,  at  least  a 
daily  inspection,  and  a  report  on  the  conditions  of 
thiugs,  which  report  should  be  considered  of  as  much 
value  in  determining  the  standing  of  the  pupil  as  that 
of  study  or  recitation.  This  would  invest  these  duties 
with  the  same  degree  of  interest  that  others  have.  It 
is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  our  children  will  at- 
tach any  effective  importance  to  them,  unless  they  are 
brought  into  prominent  notice.  It  is  a  rare  instance 
indeed  that  children  become  what  we  propose  to  make 
them,  merely  by  preceptive  instruction.  In  this,  as  in 
all  other  departments,  they  must  actually  engage  in  the 
duty,  and  feel  its  responsibility. 

Section  2 — Promptness  and  Punctuality  are  traits 
of  character  which  this  department  should  especially 
cultivate.  These  are  of  such  vital  importance,  that  it 
may  be  said  with  truth,  that  all  permanent  success  in 
every  department  of  business,  depends  upon  them. 
True,  the  exercises  of  study  and  recitation,  properly 
directed,  have  a  tendency  to  cultivate  these  virtues ; 
but  it  is  proper  to  inquire  how  far  promptness  and 
punctuality  depend  upon  special  efforts. 

1.  As  to  time.  In  the  transaction  of  these  and  all 
other  duties,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
time.  If  we  expect  our  pupils  to  be,  in  this  respect, 
what  our  precepts  would  indicate,  and  what  we  expect 
of  them,  they  must  have  these  traits  of  character  cul- 
tivated by  the  same  process  that  others  are.  There 
should  therefore  be  an  exact  and  definite  time  in  which 
all  these  duties  should  be  conducted — exact  to  a  min- 


SCHOOL    BUSINESS.  161 

ute — as  much  so  as  that  a  definition  or  rule  should  be 
to  a  word — and  no  ordinary  excuse  should  justify  or 
excuse  a  departure  from  it. 

2.  The  place  and  manner  of  disposing  of  these 
things  should  be  just  as  definite.  Every  article  of  fur- 
niture about  the  premises  of  every  pupil  should  have 
its  appropriate  place,  and  should  be  arranged  in  its 
appropriate  manner,  and  with  as  much  care  as  if  they 
were  words  in  a  sentence,  or  figures  in  the  solution 
of  a  problem.  The  one  will  have  no  greater  effect 
upon  the  habits  and  happiness  of  the  future  man  or 
woman  than  the  other.  Instead  of  books,  etc.,  being 
thrown  about  the  desk  or  room  in  that  confused  man- 
ner which  usually  costs  the  pupil  and  teacher  so  much 
perplexity,  they  should  be  arranged  in  just  such  a 
place  and  in  just  such  a  manner;  so  that  when  the 
pupil  has  need  of  any  of  them,  he  need  not  disturb 
the  whole  school,  rummaging  in  his  confused  pack,  ask- 
ing a  dozen  needless  and  impertinent  questions  about 
this  thing  and  that,  before  finding  what  he  wants. 
How  frequently  is  this  the  case !  And  how  unhappy, 
not  to  say  miserable,  this  makes  a  school !  And  then 
this  habit  is  carried  right  into  whatever  business  or 
employment  the  pupil  may  select  in  after  life.  If 
he  become  a  mechanic,  with  these  evil  habits  cling- 
ing to  him,  his  tools  and  materials  will  present  the 
sanu=  disorderly  appearance.  His  saws  and  files,  and 
nails  and  hatchets  and  hammers,  will  be  thrown  con- 
fusedly together,  to  be  injured  by  the  contact;  and 
square  and  compass,  augers  and  bits,  planes  and  chisels, 
will  be  lost  in  a  heap  of  rubbish,  while  his  nice  pat- 
terns and  plates  will  be  greased  and  soiled — the  whole 
a  fair  transcript  of  his  desk  in  school. 

If  he  become  a  farmer, his  fields  will  be  out  of  pro- 
14 


162  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

portion.  An  unsightly  stump  or  tree  will  be  standing 
where  it  ought  not  to  be,  and  a  dozen  will  be  cut  down 
or  marred  where  they  ought  to  be  cultivated.  His 
fences  will  be  thrown  down,  or  overgrown  with  bram- 
bles. Little  patches  of  ground  will  be  left  unculti- 
vated here  and  there,  about  the  stumps  and  wet  or 
stony  places.  His  door-yard,  if  he  have  any,  will  be 
bleak  and  naked,  the  object  of  constant  depredations 
from  pigs  and  geese.  His  cows  and  sheep,  hogs  and 
horses,  will  all  herd  together;  and  his  barn-yard  will 
become  the  common  rendezvous  for  the  vagabond  ani- 
mals of  the  neighborhood.  His  buildings — well,  look 
there !  You  may  see  them  all  out  of  repair,  and 
bleaching  in  the  sun  and  rain.  The  saddle  and  rakes 
are  on  the  porch — a  roosting-piace  for  hens — while 
bits  of  broken  harness,  and  remains  of  harrows,  orna- 
ment the  piazza.  Old  barrels  and  benches  lumber  the 
barn,  and  pitchforks  and  plows,  scythes  and  sickles,  the 
house  and  yard.  If  he  become  a  professional  man, 
his  office  and  study  will  present  a  similar  picture;  if  a 
merchant  or  banker,  his  books  and  ledgers  will  be 
crowded  and  confused;  his  accounts  unsettled  and 
uncertain. 

But  careless  and  slovenly  habits  are  not  alone  felt 
by  men.  They  visit  some  of  their  worst  woes  upon 
women.  The  young  lady  (?)  of  disorderly  habits,  per- 
haps becomes  a  wife  and  a  housekeeper.  Her  house — 
But  we  forbear.  We  will  not  uncover  the  secrets 
within.  Over  this  sad  picture  we  would  draw  a  vail. 
We  fain  would  hide  it  from  mortal  sight.  It  were 
enough  to  say,  that  in  too  many  instances,  squalid 
wretchedness,  angry  broils,  unhappy  households,  dis- 
sipated husbands,  children  driven  from  what  should 
be  a  peaceful  fireside,  to  seek  a  gratification  of  the 


SCHOOL   BUSINESS.  163 

social  nature  amid  scenes  of  dissipation  and  vice,  all 
testify  but  too  strongly  against  the  neglect  to  cultivate 
habits  of  neatness,  order,  promptness  and  punctuality, 
in  connection  with  social  and  aesthetic  training. 

Section  3 — Aids  to  Duties  and  Emergencies. — 
Another  object,  which  alone  should  be  sufficient  to 
secure  the  special  attention  to  these  habits,  is  the  aid 
they  would  afford  in  the  performance  of  other  duties, 
and  the  ability  they  would  impart  to  ward  off  danger. 
No  one  can  estimate  the  value  of  the  time  lost  in  fruit- 
less attempts  to  prosecute  business,  under  circumstan- 
ces where  everything  is  out  of  time  and  place.  This 
evil  is  felt  severely  in  the  school-room,  but  not  more 
severely  there  than  on  the  stage  of  active  life.  When 
a  book  is  wanted,  for  instance,  from  which  to  prepare 
a  hurried  lesson,  it  is  lost — "  somebody  has  taken  it." 
An  impatient  search  commences,  during  which  an 
inkstand  or  two  are  upset,  the  contents  besmearing  the 
books  and  furniture.  Pupils  in  the  vicinity  are  an- 
noyed. Much  time  and  patience  are  lost,  and  above 
all  the  peace  and  order  of  the  whole  school  are  dis- 
turbed by  one  such  pupil.  What,  then,  must  be  the 
fate  of  that  school,  composed  —  teacher  and  all — of 
such  ?  It  is  more  easily  imagined  than  told.  But 
another  object,  connected  with  this  article,  deserves  no- 
tice here.  It  is  the  provision  or  preparation  that  may 
be  made,  while  in  school,  against  the  emergencies,  acci- 
dents and  casualties  incident  to  human  life. 

In  this  uncertain  world,  accidents  will  happen. 
While  their  number  and  severity  may  be  much  re- 
duced by  an  enlightened  and  highly  liberal  education ; 
yet  it  would  be  vain  to  expect  to  escape  all  of  them. 
It  were,  therefore,  wiser  to  provide  for  them.     It  is  a 


164  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

well-known  fact  too,  that  few  people  possess  sufficient 
self-control,  in  cases  of  severe  accidents,  or  in  places 
of  imminent  danger,  to  enable  them  to  do  any  thing 
available,  either  for  their  relief  or  rescue.  In  fact,  in 
the  great  majority  of  instances,  the  dangers  and  mis- 
haps are  aggravated  for  the  want  of  coolness  and  self- 
possession  in  the  hour  and  article  of  imminent  peril — 
such,  for  instance,  as  in  cases  of  fire,  of  drowning,  of 
poison,  or  in  the  case  of  asphyxia  from  any  cause. 
The  man  who  climbed  to  the  third  story  of  a  burning 
house  and  threw  from  the  window  a  mantle-clock  and 
looking-glass,  down  upon  the  pavement  below,  and 
then  caught  up  a  feather  bed,  ran  down  two  flights  of 
stairs  and  carefully  deposited  it  in  the  street,  is  but  too 
apt  an  illustration  of  the  want  of  sense  that  usually 
prevails  on  such  occasions.  A  few  noble  exceptions, 
I  know,  we  have  on  record,  but  these  only  show  us 
what  could  be  done,  provided  the  masses  could  be  im- 
bued with  the  same  spirit,  and  these  noble  traits  of 
character  cultivated. 

What  an  awful  calamity  was  that  which  occurred  a 
few  years  since,  in  one  of  our  Eastern  cities,  where 
hundreds  of  children  were  precipitated  down  two  or 
three  flights  of  stairs,  and  crushed  in  one  mangled 
mass  below,  —  and  all  from  a  false  alarm  of  lire! 
Now,  without  reflecting  the  least  blame  upon  those 
teachers,  allow  us  to  ask,  could  not  these  children  have 
been  saved  ?  Could  they  not  have  been  taught,  by 
rigid  and  careful  training,  to  master  their  feelings  by 
their  judgment?  Could  they  not  have  been  taught  to 
sit  quietly  in  their  seats  and  await  the  orders  of  their 
teachers,  in  such  cases  of  danger?  I  know  they  could, 
provided  they  had  been  taught  lessons  on  the  dangers 
of  precipitation,  as  carefully  as  they  had  been  in  read- 


SCHOOL   BUSINESS.  165 

ing  and  arithmetic.  I  say  taught,  because  I  believe 
children  should  be  shown,  by  actual  experiment,  that 
they  only  endanger  themselves  by  haste  in  such  in- 
stances. Let  the  experiment  be  made  with  the  chil- 
dren in  going  out  in  a  disorderly  and  hurried  manner 
— of  course  avoiding  danger — and  then,  in  a  quiet  and 
orderly  manner,  and  the  difference  in  time  noted.  Let 
it  be  made  frequently,  and  practiced  for  the  express 
purpose  of  providing  against  accidents,  etc. :  and  it 
will  be  found  that  from  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  a 
minute  is  sufficient  time  for  all  to  quit  the  premises  of 
an  ordinary  building.  Let  them  see  that  one  minute 
and  a  half, at  most,  is  sufficient  time  to  allow  all  the 
inmates  to  escape  from  a  burning  building,  provided 
all  are  orderly;  and  that  it  will  require  ten  times  as 
long  if  they  are  not,  and  that  no  fire  is  likely  to  occur 
which  would  destroy  egress  in  one  minute  of  time; 
and  that  should  this  be  the  case,  disorderly  haste  only 
augments  and  aggravates  the  delay. 

This  imperturable  coolness  and  calculation  in  mo- 
ments of  peril  or  emergency,  will  prove  of  infinitely 
more  service  to  the  pupils  in  their  lives,  perhaps,  than 
nine  tenths  of  all  their  learning,  and  will  not,  mean- 
while, interfere  at  all  with  it.  And  then  in  cases 
of  that  most  frequent  and  frightful,  yet  most  un- 
necessary, as  well  as  too  frequently  fatal  class  of  acci- 
dents tie  explosion  of  lamps,  and  burnings  from  the 
clothes  taking  fire,  how  many  might  be  saved  if  they 
had  only  been  taught  how  !  Not  only  how  to  extin- 
guish flame,  but  how  to  possess  their  wits  at  such 
times.  But  let  it  be  shown  also,  how  the  flames  can 
be  extinguished  under  such  circumstances.  Perhaps, 
it  would  not  be  good  policy  or  even  safe  to  set  any  one 
on  fire,  for  the  benefits  of  the  experiment;  and  yet 


166  TIIE   ART    OF    TEACHING. 

the  whole  process  might  be  shown  in  a  very  short 
time  to  a  class  of  children,  which,  but  for  this  timely 
instruction,  might  not  only  always  be  ignorant  upon 
those  points,  but  the  actual  sufferers  themselves. 

And  so  in  reference  to  poisoning,  or  suffocation 
from  any  cause,  severe  wounds,  freezing,  etc.,  etc.,  all 
these  things  and  their  remedies  and  modes  of  treat- 
ment, should  be  discussed  in  a  few  practical  lessons  in 
every  school  in  the  land.  The  antidotes  and  remedies 
for  these  are  usually  forgotten  in  the  fright  that  occurs 
under  such  circumstances;  but  if  children  are  taught 
in  a  series  of  lessons  as  before  indicated,  and  these 
things  made  the  subject  of  frequent  reference,  the 
occasions  would  be  rare  indeed,  in  which  they  would 
either  be  forgotten  or  neglected  from  any  other  cause. 

This  part  of  the  subject  might  be  continued  at  great 
length,  but  the  information  upon  these  points  is  abun- 
dant. All  that  seems  necessary  is  that  the  teacher 
prepare  himself  to  make  use  of  the  means ;  and  we 
might  add,  that  no  teacher  who  neglects  these  things, 
does  his  whole  duty. 

Article  2— Requisites,  etc. 

We  shall  now  devote  a  few  pages  to  the  considera- 
tion of'  some  of  the  requisites  and  means,  for  carrying 
forward  this  species  of  culture.  We  have  endeavored 
to  show,  in  connection  with  the  objects  and  neces- 
sities, the  manner  in  which  the  habits  of  neatness, 
order,  etc.,  may  be  established  in  early  life.  It  might 
be  well  to  inquire  further  as  to  the  advantages  and  op- 
portunities, the  school-room  affords  for  such  a  course. 

Section  1 — Change  of  Exercises. — Aside  from  the 
advantages  of  convenient  school-rooms,  plenty  of  appa- 


SCHOOL    BUSINESS.  167 

ratus,  etc.,  etc.,  which  have  been  noticed  in  another 
place,  there  is  this  additional  one,  rising  out  of  a 
necessity  for  a  change  of  employment,  which  is  con- 
tinually recurring.  It  will  be  seen,  furthermore,  by 
a  reference  to  the  close  of  this  chapter,  that  a  certain 
amount  of  time  is  appropriated  to  the  several  duties 
of  each  day.  The  changes  from  one  duty  to  another, 
therefore,  afford  the  very  means  we  could  desire  for 
the  cultivation  of  promptness  and  precision,  both  as 
to  time  and  manner. 

1.  There  is  a  necessity  for  change  of  classes,  oc- 
curring periodically.  These  changes  should  not  only 
take  place  precisely  at  the  same  time  each  day,  but 
should  be  conducted  with  strict  uniformity  as  to  man- 
ner, etc.  Children  should  be  taught  among  the  first 
things,  to  pass  to  and  from  the  recitation  seat  with 
the  utmost  care.  But  there  will  always  be  more  or 
less  noise  on  such  occasions.  It  would  not  be  wise  to 
insist  upon  the  usual  quiet  during  these  changes. 
But  this  time  should  by  no  means  be  lost.  It  may 
be  devoted,  by  pre-arrangement,  to  the  transaction  of 
any  business  that  might  require  the  pupils  to  leave 
their  seats. 

2.  It  may,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
up  fires,  or  to  attend  to  ventilation.  This  is  the  time 
for  these  duties,  and  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
usurp  any  other.  How  unpleasant  and  unreasonable 
it  is  to  have  a  boy  rattling  at  a  stove,  or  banging  at 
a  door  or  window  or  a  ventilator  (if  the  school  is  for 
tunate  enough  to  have  any),  while  the  teacher  is 
engaged  in  hearing  a  class  of  pupils  that  may  be 
troubled  with  weak  voices  and  weak  nerves.  Bather 
let  there  be  a  fixed  time  and  a  distinct  understanding 
in  reference  to  these  duties,  and  let  them  be  attended 


168  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

to  when  there  will  be  the  least  loss  of  time,  and  the 
least  interruption  in  other  directions. 

Again :  communications  are  necessary.  Aside 
from  the  fact  that  children  are  eminently  social  be- 
ings, and  hence  ought  not  to  be  deprived  of  this  priv- 
ilege entirely,  there  are  duties  and  labors  which  ren- 
der it  absolutely  necessary  that  pupils  should  commu- 
nicate, both  with  one  another,  and  with  their  teacher. 
There  should,  therefore,  be  a  time  set  apart  for  this 
purpose.  It  might  be  called  whispering  or  business 
moments,  and  should  occur  at  least  once  an  hour,  but 
should  not  exceed  from  three  to  five  minutes  in  length. 
All  communications  between  the  pupils,  and  all  ques- 
tions to  the  teacher,  that  do  not  require  lengthy  an- 
swers (most  of  this  latter  class  come  in  recitation), 
should  be  reserved  for  this  time,  and  not  allowed  to 
mingle  with  and  obstruct  other  duties.  This  arrange- 
ment will  very  much  facilitate  business  generally,  and 
besides  it  will  be  the  surest  means  of  suppressing  that 
troublesome  practice,  among  pupils,  of  communicating 
at  improper  times.  Perhaps  no  one  evil  has  been 
more  universally  dreaded,  or  more  stoutly  opposed 
with  poor  success ;  and  the  chief  reason  for  this  is 
found  in  the  fact  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
no  provision  has  been  made  for  an  outlet  of  this 
superabundant  and  pent-up  vitality  and  sociability. 

Let  there  be  a  time  set  apart  for  this,  just  as  for 
any  other  necessity,  and  let  no  communications  (ex- 
cept cases  of  extreme  necessity)  be  permitted  at  any 
other  time,  not  even  the  simplest  question.  It  might 
be  a  little  inconvenient  and  seem  a  little  hard  for  a 
boy  or  girl  to  be  compelled  to  wait  half  an  hour 
before  he  or  she  might  be  permitted  to  ask  what 
seemed  a  very  necessary  question;  but  it  should  be 


SCHOOL   BUSINESS.  169 

remembered  that  in  a  school,  as  well  as  in  a  larger 
community,  individual  interests  and  preferences  must 
yield  to  the  public  good.  But  in  most  cases,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  business,  or  request,  is  not  so  urgent 
that  it  may  not  be  delayed  without  damaging  any 
one ;  and  not  only  so,  but  that  a  very  wholesome  les- 
son may  thereby  be  taught  the  delinquent,  in  re- 
ference to  attending  to  these  things  at  their  proper 
times. 

Suppose  a  pupil,  for  instance,  has  neglected  to  note 
the  lesson  assigned  on  a  previous  day,  and  that  when 
he  takes  his  book  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  said 
lesson,  he  has  forgotten  where  or  how  it  begins;  but 
his  companion  next  to  him  knows  all  about  it:  now 
may  he  not  obtain  permission  to  inquire  after  said  les- 
son ?  No  :  rather  let  him  suffer  the  ill  consequences 
of  a  failure,  so  that  he  may  avoid  a  like  calamity  in 
future.  Or  suppose  he  has  neglected,  at  the  proper 
time,  to  get  a  book  that  lies  within  a  few  yards  of 
him,  and  that  that  book  is  necessary  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  next  lesson,  may  he  not  ask  for  it  ?  No  : 
let  him  suffer  the  consequences,  rather  than  establish 
a  bad  precedent.  Let  the  penalty  fall  upon  the  guilty 
one,  and  upon  no  other.  This  constitutes  an  addi- 
tional reason,  why  there  should  be  a  set  time  for  all 
these  duties.  A  few  weeks'  practice  will  teach  the 
pupils  to  dispose  of  all  their  items  of  business  at  the 
proper  time.  How  much  better  thus  than  to  suffer 
the  constant  annoyance  of  an  attempt  to  carry  on  all 
these  departments  at  once !  The  communications 
should  all  be  disposed  of  here,  the  study  and  reci- 
tations at  their  respective  times,  and  practice  will 
soon  insure  all  this.     How  much  better  thus  than  to 

mix  them  all  together!  And  how  much  better  than  to 
13 


■*■'  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

insist  upon  constant  quiet,  and  perhaps  obtain  nothing 
more  than  constant  disturbance.  Therefore,  provide 
whispering  moments,  and  let  these  be  observed  as 
scrupulously  as  any  other  duty. 

Section  2 — An  Order  of  Duties. —  Every  child 
jshould  be  provided  with  an  order  of  duties.  Those  who 
are  able  to  write,  should  prepare  these,  in  which  every 
duty  shall  be  provided  for,  and  every  moment  of  time 
employed.  These  orders  after  being  prepared  by  the 
pupils,  might  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  for  inspec- 
tion and  improvement,  as  before  directed.  For  the 
younger  classes,  they  should  be  written  out  upon  the 
board,  or  upon  cards,  and  so  arranged  that,  with  the 
aid  of  the  teacher,  they  may  direct  them  in  the  dispo- 
sition of  their  time  also.  This  measure  thoroughly 
adopted  and  carried  out  in  all  the  schools,  would,  of 
itself,  do  more  to  systematize  labor,  and  hence  remove 
the  many  evils  complained  of  by  teachers,  and  at  the 
same  time  assist  the  pupils  in  their  duties,  than  almost 
any  other  one  thing.  And  then  it  is  just  what  is 
wanted  to  form  and  establish  good  habits  and  prepare 
our  pupils  for  the  practical  duties  of  life. 

This  order  should  differ  from  the  "order  of  exer- 
cises," described  in  another  place.  That  is  general,  01 
for  the  whole  school;  this  is  particular,  or  for  indi 
viduals  and  classes. 

Section  3 — Close  Attention. — Another  requisite 
is  close  attention.  In  order  to  meet  the  claims  of  this 
severe  regime,  there  must  be  no  inattention  or  idleness. 
The  system  admits  of  none.  The  moment  the  child 
indulges,  he  is  lost.  He  is  out  of  his  place,  and  falls 
behind.     The  system  itself  will  either  correct  him,  or, 


SCHOOL   BUSINESS.  171 

in  time,  banish  him.  While  there  is  ample  time 
given  for  communication,  recreation  and  amusement 
(and  these  duties  should  be  encouraged  just  as  others 
are),  there  is  no  time  spent  without  a  purpose  or  an 

object. 

Now  let  a  child,  or  let  all  our  children  remain  from 
five  to  seven  years  under  this  severe  drill,  in  which  they 
acquire  the  habit  of  making  use  of  all  their  time,  and 
what  will  be  the  probable,  nay  almost  certain  effects  up- 
on them  ?  Time  and  existence  would  not  then  become  a 
burden.  They  would  not  be  sent  adrift  from  the  school, 
to  become  a  prey  to  idleness  and  the  dupes  of  vice. 
Their  education  will  have  fortified  them  against  these 
calamities,  instead  of  exposing  them  to  them.  The 
world  would  be  rid  of  a  race  of  vagabonds  ;  virtue 
and  innocence  would  be  comparatively  safe  ;  and  com- 
parative peace  and  plenty  would  reign  in  all  the 
walks  of  life.  Would  not  this  be  worth  a  trial?  Are 
not  this  rigid  discipline  and  order  more  to  be  desired 
than  the  mere  acquisition  of  knowledge,  especially, 
since  they  are  the  safest  means  of  accomplishing  even 
this? 

Again :  self-denial  and  frugality  will  be  required. 
As  before  remarked,  the  pupil's  personal  preferences, 
will,  in  many  instances,  have  to  be  sacrificed  to  the 
general  welfare ;  and  he  will  soon  learn  to  make  use 
of  the  allotted  time  for  the  performance  of  each  duty. 
Here  again,  he  will  only  be  cultivating  feelings  and 
habits  that  he  will  be  called  upon  to  exercise  in  the 
drama  of  life.  How  much  evil  does  this  world  suffer 
from  indulgence  and  indolence  !  Might  not  these  be 
arrested  here,  before  they  find  too  deep  root  in  the 
habits  of  life?  Mighr  not  the  smool  assist  in  this 
preparation  ?    Is  not  this  its  legitimate  object  ?    Would 


172  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

uot  the  discipline  and  order  necessary  to  carry  on  this 
exact  training,  meet  the  demand  exactly  ?  In  one 
word,  is  it  not  the  most  evident  intention  of  all  educa- 
tion to  regulate  man's  forces,  and  to  give  him  entire 
command  of  all  his  powers?  Let  the  school  then  be 
the  instrument  of  earnest  and  wisely  directed  labor; 
not  a  mere  farce,  or  a  place  where  a  few  feeble,  sickly 
exercises,  are  engaged  in,  day  after  day,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  filling  up  the  time.  ISTo  wonder  that  the 
children  turn  with  loathing,  in  many  instances,  from 
such  tame  and  tasteless  humdrum,  such  irksome  and 
aimless  toil.  But  we  leave  this  part  of  the  subject, 
to  consider  for  a  moment, 

Article  3— The  mode  of  Conducting,  etc. 

This  part  of  the  subject  will  require  but  little  atten- 
tion, since  the  manner  of  conducting  these  exercises 
will  readily  be  inferred  from  what  has  already  been 
said.  We  might  add  a  few  directions,  however,  by 
way  of  completing  the  outline. 

1.  Dispatch,  or  haste  without  confusion.  2.  A  mod- 
erate degree  of  stillness  in  the  transaction  of  the  va- 
rious items.  3.  Scrupulous  care  and  accuracy  in  ref- 
erence to  the  arrangements  of  books,  apparatus,  etc., 
and  also  in  the  movements  of  the  body  ;  all  of  which 
topics  we  shall  discuss  in  the  same  connection.  They 
are  all  important  features  in  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness of  any  kind  ;  but  when  we  come  to  apply  them 
to  the  hchool-room,  and  to  make  them  the  type  or 
standard  of  the  whole  life  business,  their  importance 
is  very  much  augmented. 

It  will  be  found,  upon  the  introduction  of  the  plans 
and  practices  here  suggested,  that  much  that  has  been 
assigned,  will  be  neglected  for  want  of  time;  and  this 


SCHOOL    BUSINESS.  173 

will  be  the  standing  excuse  for  non-performance  ;  for 
children,  if  left  to  have  their  own  way,  will  usually 
consume  twice  or  three  times  as  much  time  as  is 
really  necessary ;  besides,  they  are  not  always  aware 
of  how  little  noise  is  really  necessary,  and  of  how 
much  real  advantage  scrupulous  care  and  accuracy  in 
the  arrangements  are,  in  the  transaction  of  the  vari- 
ous duties  of  the  school- room.  Hence  these  things 
should  be  shown  to  them,  in  a  series  of  special  exer- 
cises, and  then  practiced  in  all  the  regular  duties. 
One  class  of  such  exercises  might  be  called  "  Hand- 
ling books  and  apparatus.  " 

For  the  special  drills  in  this  exercise  there  might  be 
a  "  word  of  command ;  "  such,  for  instance,  as  is  usual 
in  Calisthenics.  The  first  might  be,  "Preparation  for 
study; "  in  which  every  book,  paper,  etc.,  not  to  be  used 
should  be  put  away  in  proper  order  in  the  desk.  Let 
it  be  done  too,  in  the  speediest  manner  possible,  and 
with  no  unnecessary  noise,  and  the  proper  position  as- 
sumed, with  books  closed  and  eyes  turned  toward  the 
teacher ;  because  it  often  is  necessary  for  him  to  give 
some  directions  and  explanations  about  the  recitations 
at  such  times,  when  it  is  very  annoying  to  him,  for  the 
pupils  to  be  giving  their  attention  to  their  books.  On 
such  occasions,  when  the  books  and  slates  are  brought 
out  for  use,  there  will  necessarily  be  a  rustling,  caused 
by  the  great  number  of  movements  of  this  character, 
at  the  same  time;  but  there  need  be  none  of  that 
obstreperous  slamming  and  banging,  so  common  on 
such  occasions,  caused  perhaps  by  a  half-dozen  slates 
let  fall  upon  the  floor,  or  two  or  three  desks  upset,  on 
making  the  change  from  one  posture  to  another.  If 
the  first  trial  is  not  successful,  let  the  books,  etc.,  be 


174  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

replaced,   and    the   experiment    repeated    again   and 
again,  until  the  proper  movements  are  secured. 

A  second  word  of  command  might  be,  "Preparation 
for  recitation"  in  which  every  thing  not  needed  in 
recitation  shall  be  disposed  of  in  a  similar  manner.  It 
is  customary  to  give  a  signal  for  rising,  before  coming 
to  the  recitation  seat,  and  one  for  advancing,  and 
sometimes  one  for  being  seated,  and  for  proper  arrange- 
ment. With  scholars  undrilled,  the  first  few  attempts 
will  be  unsatisfactory.  A  part  will  not  be  quite  ready; 
hence  some  will  rise  after  the  balance  are  up :  others 
perhaps,  not  having  obeyed  the  first  summons,  will  be 
occupying  such  positions  as  will  very  much  interfere 
with  their  graceful  movements;  hence  in  rising  they 
are  apt  to  make  a  disturbance.  Others  again,  will 
slowly  unbend  themselves  from  a  circular  posture 
which  they  may  have  assumed,  and  will  occupy  about 
as  much  time  in  rising  as  an  old,  superannuated  ox 
would.  Others  will  perhaps  bound  to  their  feet  with 
a  quick,  nervous  movement,  that  will  be  equally 
objectionable.  All  these  movements  must  be  regu- 
lated. In  coming  to. the  recitation  seat,  some  perhaps 
will  dally  with  some  trifling  amusement  by  the  way; 
some  will  lounge  lazily  along,  and  swing  themselves 
into  the  seat,  as  if  it  were  a  place  of  torture  —  and 
perhaps  it  really  is  to  some.  Others  again  will  jostle 
a  book  or  slate  upon  the  floor,  or  upset  a  desk  or  an 
inkstand ;  and  altogether  there  will  be  about  as  much 
noise  as  a  four-horse  team,  or  a  drove  of  cattle  would 
make  in  the  passage  of  a  bridge.  But  let  the  experi- 
ment, in  all  the  necessary  variety  of  movements,  be 
repeated  for  the  express  purpose  of  improving  them. 
In  rising  up  and  sitting  down,  for  instance,  if  it  be 


SCHOOL   BUSINESS.  175 

not  in  good  taste,  let  the  class  be  politely  requested  to 
be  seated,  the  error  pointed  out,  and  the  whole  process 
repeated ;  and  so  of  advancing,  seating  and  retiring, 
until  satisfactory  results  are  secured.  A  similar  op- 
portunity occurs  for  cultivating  these  habits  of  neat- 
ness and  propriety  at  the  opening  and  closing  of  school, 
and  at  all  the  regular  recesses.  Let  the  same  exact- 
ness and  care  be  exercised  in  these  as  in  others ;  and 
it  will  not  be  long  before  the  pupils  will  begin  to 
regard  all  the  exercises  of  the  school-room  with  a 
new  degree  of  interest.  They  will  look  upon  them  as 
the  means  of  improvement,  and  their  diffident,  uncouth 
and  vulgar  habits  will  give  way  for  those  of  refine- 
ment and  order. 

The  following  scheme  for  the  division  of  time  and 
labor  will  be  found  suggestive,  at  least.  While  it  is 
not  claimed  that  this,  or  indeed  that  any  coald  be  de- 
vised, that  would  meet  all  the  circumstances  of  every 
school,  yet  it  is  claimed  that  the  time  and  duties  of 
every  school  in  the  land  may  be  arranged  in  a  manner 
similar  to  this;  and  the  benefits  arising  from  such  a 
disposition  of  affairs  would  more  than  compensate  for 
any  difficulties  that  might  be  experienced  in  putting 
it  into  practice.  Let  it  be  written  or  printed  in  large 
type,  and  so  placed  that  all  in  the  room  may  be  able 
to  read  it.  It  will  be  necessary  also,  to  have  a  clock, 
and  a  small  bell,  in  order  to  mark  those  divisions  of 
time.  Some  teachers  have  found  it  a  good  plan  to 
appoint  monitors  daily  to  take  charge  of  the  bell,  and 
to  mark  by  slight  strokes  upon  it — -just  enough  to  be 
heard  by  all  the  school — the  several  divisions  of  time 
as  they  occur.  Others  again,  have  found  it  best  to 
take  the  entire  charge  of  it  themselves. 


176  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 


Order  of  Daily  Exercises. 

FORENOON. 

From    9.00  to    9.10  Opening  Exercises 10  mm 

"  9.10"     9.20  Study 10  " 

"  9.20  "     9.40  Beginning  Class 20  " 

"  9.40  "  10.00  Reading  (C) 20  " 

"  10.00  "  10.05  Business 5  " 

"  10.05  "  10.25  Reading  (B) 20  " 

"  10.25  "  10.35  Recess 10  " 

«■  10.35  "   11.00  Arithmetic  (A) 25  " 

"  11.00  «  11.20  Arithmetic  (B) 20  " 

"  11.20  "  11.25  Business 5  " 

"  11.25  «  11.45  Arith.  (C)  (M.  &W.)-..-20  " 

"  11.45  «   12.00  General  Exercises 15  " 

AFTERNOON. 

From  1.00  to  1.10  Study 10  mir.. 

"  1.10"  1.35  Reading  (A) 25  " 

"  1.35  "  1.55  Beginning  Class 20  " 

"  1.55"  2.00  Business 5  " 

"  2.00  "  2.20  Grammar  (B) 20  " 

"  2.20"  2.45  Grammar  (A) 25  " 

"  2.45  "  2.55  Recess    10  " 

"  2.55  "  3.20  Geography  (A) 25  " 

"  3.20"  3.40  Geography  (B)    20  " 

"  3.40  "  3.55  General  Exercises 15  " 

"  3.55  "  4.00  Closing    5  " 

The  above  is  more  to  show  the  necessity  and  prac- 
ticability of  a  Plan,  than  to  describe  one.  For  the 
want  of  something  of  this  kind,  the  energies  of  the 
teacher  and  the  time  of  the  pupils  are  spent  in  useless 
attempts  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  school-room. 


SCHOOL    BUSINESS.  177 

It  will  be  observed  that  no  provision  is  made  for 
Writing  and  Spelling.  A  part  of  the  former,  and  per- 
haps all  the  latter  may  be  done  in  connection  with 
Reading,  and  other  lessons,  as  practiced  in  our  best 
schools.  Neither  is  there  any  provision  made  for  the 
higher  branches;  but  it  will  most  frequently  occur 
that  some  of  the  classes  provided  for  above  will  not  be 
needed.  In  that  case  the  higher  branches  may  take 
their  places.  If  not,  then  the  other  exercises  will  have 
to  be  shortened. 

The  limited  number  of  classes  may  be  objected  to 
by  some,  but  we  venture  to  say  that  the  Reading  and 
Arithmetic  classes  may  be  classified  in  three  divisions 
each,  with  a  beginning  class,  etc.,  and  the  Geography 
and  Grammar  may  be  classified  in  two  divisions.  The 
needless  multiplication  of  classes  to  accommodate 
either  parents,  pupils  or  publishers  is  ruining  the  order 
and  efficiency  of  many  schools.  Teachers  should  be 
competent  to  judge,  and  should  have  the  authority  to 
say  what  and  how  many  classes  there  should  be  in  the 
school. 


178 


THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 


s^rnsro^sis  v. 


2 

0 
C 

s 


RECREATION.  1 


Objects. 


r  To  rest  and  invigorate  the  system,  and  pre 
\  vent  disease.  To  aid  in  symmetrical  devel 
"j  opment  of  body.  To  secure  ease,  grace,  and 
V_  dignity  in  movement. 


Requisites. 


r  Periodically.    Daily.     Evening 
'.me.     -<   At  school,    during   regular    re 
cesses. 


r  Open  air.    Play-Ground. 
Place.     1   Play-room.    Groves. 

V.  Pleasant  surroundings. 


Manner. 


Moderation.  Pleasant  company 

An  object  in  view. 

Free  from  care.    Protection. 


J1 


Innocent  and  active  games  of  rivalry. 
.     -I  Pleasure  and  scientific  excursions. 
V.  Calisthenic  exercises. 


RECREATION.  179 


CHAPTER  V. 

RECREATION. 

It  has  become  necessary  to  refer  to  this  subject  so 
frequently  in  the  course  of  this  work,  that  its  separate 
treatment  here  would  not  be  demanded  were  it  not  to 
show  the  relation  it  sustaius  to  the  special  duties;  and 
further  to  set  forth  that  part  of  it  which  relates  to  those 
duties,  in  as  condensed  and  as  connected  a  form  as 
possible. 

The  very  nature  of  education  is  such  that  recreation 
enters  into  it,  just  as  essentially  as  water  does  into  the 
composition  of  plants.  Indeed  there  is  no  education, 
and  there  can  be  none  ;  neither  can  there  be  life  or 
growth  in  the  animal  world,  without  it.  It  is,  as  the 
etymology  of  the  term  implies,  the  re-creating  or  re- 
newing process,  by  which,  in  the  animal  world,  the 
old  and  worn-out  particles  of  matter  in  the  system  are 
removed,  and  their  places  supplied  by  new  ones.  In 
this  respect,  it  is  a  highly  useful  process,  since  the 
health  and  happiness  of  the  individual  depend  so  es- 
sentially upon  it.  These  particles,  if  not  removed 
from  the  system,  become  obstructions  to  a  healthy 
vitality,  and  hence  are  the  fruitful  source  of  disease. 
And  if  new  particles  are  not  supplied,  as  the  old  are 
removed,  there  is  consequent  emaciation.  This  truth 
has  also  an  important  bearing  upon  the  intellectual  and 
moral  man.  The  mental  powers  need  the  renovating 
influence  of  activity  and  rest,  since  their  operation  is 
through  a  physical  organism. 


180  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Now,  the  whole  thing  is  reduced  to  this:  to  recrea*  e 
there  must  be  both  exercise  and  rest — exercise  and 
activity  or  motion  of  the  several  parts,  in  order  to 
throw  off  the  waste  material,  and  to  aid  in  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  new — rest,  to  allow  time  for  settling  and 
fixing  the  deposits,  and  renewing  and  invigorating 
the  weary  powers.  The  question  now  arises,  are  the 
exercises  of  the  schoolroom  prejudicial  or  beneficial  to 
this  natural  and  necessary  process?  If  necessarily 
prejudicial,  then  there  is  antagonism  between  man 
and  his  own  happiness — an  inconsistency  so  glaring 
as  to  forbid  belief;  if  unnecessarily  so,  then  the  health 
and  happiness  of  the  race  would  demand  an  immedi- 
ate reform.  If  recreative  exercises  are  beneficial,  then 
they  should  be  encouraged  and  practiced.  These 
reasons,  and  others  that  might  be  given,  are  suffi- 
ciently apparent  to  warrant  their  introduction  and 
practice  in  the  schoolroom.  For  further  evidence 
upon  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  those  sec- 
tions where  its  claims,  as  an  educational  force,  are 
treated  more  at  length. 

Article  1— Necessity  and  Objects. 

In  accordance  with  the  views  expressed  above,  among 
the  first  necessities,  objects  and  uses,  would  be  that  of 
resting  the  mind  and  body.  It  is  a  well-known  fact, 
that  change  of  employment  rests  and  invigorates 
or  renews  the  system.  This  is  effected  chiefly  by 
changing  the  position  of  the  exercise  from  one  point 
to  another.  It  is  equally  well  known  that  in  the  con- 
finement necessary  for  protracted  study,  certain  parts 
of  the  system  suffer  more  than  others :  certain  parts 
are  brought  into  almost  constant  exercise,  while 
others  remain   in   comparative   inactivity ;    and   that 


RECREATION.  181 

some  powers  are  exercised  almost  constantly,  in  the 
game  employment,  while  a  simple  change  in  the  direc- 
tion would  relieve  them.  At  such  times  there  will  be 
a  desire  for  either  motion,  rest,  or  change. 

Section  1 — To  Invigorate  the  System. —  Now  it 
should  be  the  care  of  the  teacher  not  to  allow  any  of 
the  desires  to  end  in  evil,  or  even  to  run  to  waste. 
They  are  all  needed  in  educating  the  child.  The  object, 
therefore,  of  all  recreative  exercises,  should  be  to  con- 
fine, as  much  as  possible,  the  exercises  to  those  parts 
most  needing  them,  to  rest  those  which  have  been  over- 
taxed, and  to  change  or  reverse  the  movements  of  those 
parts  which  suffer  most  from  continuous  exercise  in 
the  same  directions.  These  principles  apply  to  the  mind 
and  body,  considered  as  two  reciprocal  agents;  for  the 
one  may  be  rested  by  the  exercise  of  the  other:  but 
their  chief  application  belongs  to  the  interchangeable 
relations  existing  between  faculties  and  sets  of  facul- 
ties, belonging  to  the  same  particular  structure.  The 
main  object  of  recreation,  therefore,  in  the  school, 
should  be  to  equalize  and  distribute  wisely  the  exer- 
cise and  rest  necessary  to  produce  the  most  harmoni- 
ous results,  both  in  body  and  in  mind. 

Section  2 — To  Prevent  Disease. —  A  second  ob- 
ject, though  scarcely  removed  from  the  one  just  de- 
scribed, is  to  prevent  and  to  cure  disease.  It  is  said  by 
anatomists,  that  there  are  two  contending  forces  in 
the  animal  structure  ;  the  one  organizing  in  its  proc- 
esses, the  other  disorganizing :  the  one  is  life,  the 
other  is  death  ;  and  that  we  exist  between  these  two 
forces,  the  one  building  us  up,  the  other  tearing  us 
down ;  and  that  we  actually  live  by  the  process  of 


182  TIIE    AKT    OF    TEACHING. 

dying.  Now  it  would  seem  that  when  our  vital  forces 
become  so  exhausted  and  weakened,  either  from  over- 
exertion or  want  of  exertion,  that  the  disorganizing 
processes  become  the  stronger ;  that  actual  disease 
then  fastens  upon  us,  arresting  for  the  time  being,  the 
entire  process  of  organization  :  hence  both  the  suffer- 
ing and  emaciation  caused  by  sickness. 

It  therefore  becomes  a  matter  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, to  preserve,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  bal- 
ance between  these  forces.  Especially  is  this  neces- 
sary in  childhood  and  youth,  when,  from  natural 
causes,  the  building-up  processes  should  excel  the 
tearing  down.  At  this  period  * — as  we  have  shown 
in  other  places — owing  to  the  peculiarly  flexible,  and 
continually  changing  nature  of  the  substances,  the 
liabilities  to  contract  disease  are  greater.  But  these 
tendencies  to  disorganization  may,  from  the  same 
cause,  be  more  easily  counteracted,  since  the  subject 
is  in  a  formative  state,  and  liable  to  either  direction, 
determined  by  the  stronger  force.  It  should  therefore 
be  the  chief  object  of  the  teacher  to  fortify  those  points 
most  exposed,  whether  they  relate  to  the  body  or  to 
the  mind,  and  *o  build  up  a  superstructure  of  the 
greatest  possible  strength  and  durability. 

It  is  also  true  that  disease  may  be  arrested,  even 
after  it  has  made  considerable  progress,  provided  the 
treatment  is  such  as  to  assist  the  building-up  pro- 
cesses to  such  an  extent  as  to  throw  the  balance  in 
their  favor.  The  lungs,  for  instance,  may  be  suffer- 
ing, or  may  be  diseased  ;  but  pure  air  is  their  element 
and  nourishment.  By  wise  and  judicious  breathing 
therefore,  the  disease  may  be  thrown  off  and  the  parts 

*  Transition,  and  perhaps  the  same  is  true  of  the  objection. 


RECREATION.  183 

healed.  The  stomach,  and  consequently  the  whole 
system,  may  be  suffering  from  indigestion.  There  is, 
perhaps,  a  demand  for  additional  fluids,  or  motions  that 
will  produce  them,  less  stimulating  food,  or  healthier 
blood.  If  these  demands  are  complied  with,  and  the 
derangement  has  not  become  too  deep-seated,  the 
powers  soon  regain  their  accustomed  vigor ;  and  so  of 
all  the  vital  organs.  Sometimes  exercise,  sometimes 
rest  is  required.  But  since  many  of  the  duties  and 
exercises  of  the  school,  unless  carefully  guarded,  in- 
vite disease;  and  since  many  diseases  are  already 
formed  from  this  and  other  causes,  it  should  be  one 
of  the  special  objects  of  recreation  to  remove  the  ob- 
structions from  the  path  of  human  progress  and  hap- 
piness. For  what  other  purpose  could  this  desire  for 
amusement,  diversion,  change,  etc.,  have  been  given 
us?  Surely  not  that  it  might  torment  us,  or  lead  us 
astray !  Let  the  teacher,  therefore,  seize  hold  of  it, 
and  use  it,  not  only  to  guard  his  pupils  against  the 
encroachments  of  disease,  but  for  its  actual  removal. 

Section  3  —  To  Tacilitate  Growth.  —  Another 
prominent  object  of  recreative  exercises,  is  the  valu- 
able aid  they  render  in  the  symmetrical  development 
of  the  body.  One  of  the  saddest  pictures  our  sin- 
smitten  race  presents,  is  the  distorted,  sickly  and  in- 
sufficient development  of  body.  The  world  resembles 
one  great  hospital,  and  its  inhabitants  the  inmates, 
with  here  and  there  an  exceptional  case.  The  great 
majority  seem  to  be  suffering  from  some  malady. 
Weakness  of  limb  and  lungs,  of  body  and  brain, 
sunken  chests  and  crooked  backs,  diseased  livers  and 
distorted  spines,  poor  digestion  and  poorer  powers  of 
endurance,are  but  the  common  heritage  of  our  race. 


184  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

Indeed  it  is  in  the  rarest  instances  that  the  adage  of 
the  ancients,  "  Mens  sana  in  corpore  sano"  is  realized 
in  the  present  day,  yet  education  is  the  boast  of  this 
same  generation.  In  the  very  jaws  of  disease,  we  lift 
up  our  feeble  huzzas  for  human  progress.  We  boast 
of  our  national  and  internal  improvements,  and  at 
the  same  time  hug  our  bodily  complaints  and  mala- 
dies as  evidences  of  our  refinement.  But  away  with 
such  an  education  and  such  refinement  from  the  face 
of  the  earth  !  They  are  a  moral  pestilence  and  have 
no  business  among  a  race  of  men. 

If  sunken  cheeks  and  sallow  skin,  if  hollow  eyes 
and  emaciated  forms,  if  physical  debility  and  suffering, 
are  evidences  of  education  and  refinement,  then,  oh, 
give  me  blissful  ignorance,  and  the  life  of  the  savage! 
If  the  broad  shoulders  and  stalwart  frame,  the  ruddy 
cheek  and  plump  rounded  limb,  the  firm,  elastic  step 
and  bounding  form,  the  sparkling  eye  and  the  joyous 
laugh,  must  yield  to  the  narrow  chest  and  pinched  up 
dandy  form,  the  spindle  shanks  and  lily  hand,  the 
sickly,  sentimental  face  and  its  usual  accompaniment, 
a  shallow  brain,  the  languid  wait  and  almost  breath- 
less sigh ;  if  cotton  must  take  the  place  of  muscle, 
sound,  healthy  muscle — and  paints  and  powders  the 
place  of  the  roses  and  flush  of  health ;  if  these  and 
more  than  these  must  become  our  heritage,  then  close 
up  the  school-houses  and  colleges,  and  let  the  races, 
yet  to  come,  escape  their  horrors. 

But  these  calamities  are  only  the  results  of  inade- 
quate education.  They  constitute  no  part  of  a  sound 
system  of  culture,  any  more  than  a  failure  in  bank 
stock  constitutes  a  part  of  political  economy.  Educa- 
tion makes  a  strong  body  as  well  as  a  strong  brain. 
It  makes  a  good  heart  as  well  as  a  wise  head.     It 


RECREATION.  185 

gives  a  symmetrical  development  to  every  limb  and 
muscle,  as  well  as  strength  to  the  understanding  and 
judgment.  It  gives  beauty  and  elasticity  to  the 
human  form,  as  well  as  acuteness  of  reasoning  and 
brilliancy  of  imagination. 

Now  the  question  arises,  what  are  the  instrumen- 
talities rejected  from  the  list,  that  have  caused  this 
breach  in  a  symmetrical  growth  ?  We  shall  not  claim 
that  recreation  and  rational  amusements  have  been 
the  only  ones,  for  a  thousand  other  abuses  have 
wrought  their  inconsistencies  into  this  tangled  web, 
until,  with  all  its  excellencies,  it  seems  to  be  inadequate 
for  the  demand.  But,  however  much  we  attribute 
to  other  sources,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  if  every 
encroachment  of  a  physical  nature,  occasioned  by 
close  confinement  or  study,  were  met  and  repelled  by 
the  appropriate  physical  exercise  ;  the  bodies  of  our 
boys  and  girls,  if  free  from  constitutional  disease, 
would  grow  up  sound  and  healthy  at  the  same  time 
in  which  they  are  acquiring  knowledge,  and  expanding 
their  minds.  This,  therefore,  is  a  cardinal  principle  in 
every  sound  system  of  education.  But  it  has  been  con- 
tended for  at  every  step  in  the  progress  of  this  work. 

Section  4 — Grace  in  Movements,  etc — Another 
object  of  a  similar  nature  to  the  above,  is  accomplish- 
ed by  recreation,  viz. :  ease,  grace  and  dignity  of  move- 
ment. This  would  be  but  the  natural  result  of  the 
preceding  course  of  training.  The  healthy  and  full 
development  of  body  and  limb,  gives  command  of 
all  their  motions,  while  neglect  gives  awkwardness 
and  ill  manners.  What  a  symmetry  and  beauty,  in 
the   complete   human   form !     No    art   can    equal   it. 

16 


186  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Power's  Greek  slave,  is  but  the  impersonation  of  the 
perfect  ideal  of  a  great  artist;  but  every  teacher  has, 
perhaps,  fifty  real  living  beings,  of  the  originals  of 
which  this  is  only  the  copy.  Every  one  of  these  is 
of  more  value  than  a  hundred  "  Greek  slaves"  ;  and 
though  he  may  not  make  models  of  all  of  them,  yet 
he  may  make  all  much  better  ;  and  he  does  not  edu- 
cate them,  unless  he  does  this. 

Again  :  what  poetry,  what  magic,  what  majesty,  in 
the  proper  movements  of  this  human  form  !  There 
is  sublimity  in  the  sweeping  torrent,  as  it  leaps  from 
the  precipice  to  the  abyss  below.  There  is  majesty 
in  the  oak,  as  it  sways  in  the  storm ;  there  is  grandeur 
in  the  tread  of  an  army,  or  the  rush  of  battle.  There 
is  beauty  in  the  swoop  of  the  eagle  from  his  mountain 
eyrie,  or  in  the  gliding  of  a  ship  upon  the  ocean.  There 
is  grace  in  the  stately  movements  of  the  bending  pines, 
and  ease  and  elegance  in  the  bounding  of  the  nimble 
deer ;  but  man  combines  them  all  in  the  well  directed 
motions  of  his  body.  He  possesses  within  him  all 
these  elements.  They  should  therefore,  be  brought 
out,  and  cultivated  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
that  circumstances  will  allow.  Much  of  usefulness, 
as  well  as  of  pleasure,  especially  among  teachers,  is 
lost  by  neglecting  to  cultivate  the  grace  and  poetry  of 
motion.  However  much  children  may  differ  as  to 
natural  ability,  these  graces  are  brought  to  perfec- 
tion in  any,  only  by  careful  practice ;  and  since  the 
young  body  is  most  impressible,  these  gifts  are  most 
readily  incorporated  in  their  movement  by  early  train- 
ing,— by  taking  advantage  both  of  the  necessity  and 
desire  for  exercise  and  amusement,  and  making  them 
subserve  the  double  purpose  of  convenience  and  re- 


RECREATION.  187 

finement.  Hence  it  should  be  the  object  of  all  recre- 
ative exercises,  to  cultivate  the  easy,  graceful  and 
dignified,  in  movements  and  manners. 

Article  2— Requisites,  etc. 

The  requisites  to  recreation  may  be  considered  un- 
der three  heads  :  First,  in  reference  to  the  time:  Sec- 
ond, in  reference  to  the  place :  Third,  in  reference  to 
the' manner. 

Section  1 — The  Time. — We  remark,  in  general,  that 
all  recreation,  and  especially  that  kind  which  includes 
exercises  in  the  shape  of  amusements,  must  be  regu- 
lated with  regard  to  time.  It  will  no  more  answer  the 
purposes  of  recreation  to  engage  in  it  occasionally  and 
at  irregular  intervals,  as  convenience  or  even  as  inclina- 
tion in  all  cases  would  indicate,  any  more  than  it  would 
to  pursue  the  same  policy  with  eating  and  sleeping. 
The  reason  that  we  experience  greater  inconvenience 
from  abstinence  in  the  latter  cases,  is  because  the  bless- 
ings conferred  by  these  are  more  directly  essential  to  life ; 
and  also,  because  the  processes  of  recreation  are  carried 
on  even  by  these,  and  other  independent  modes.  But 
the  actual  benefits  of  recreation  are  just  as  essentially 
interrupted  by  neglect  or  irregularity,  as  those  to  which 
allusion  has  been  made  would  be,  by  a  similar  course 
pursued  with  them  :  therefore,  these  exercises  must  be 
regulated,  and  must  occur,  as  nearly  as  possible,  at  reg- 
ular intervals. 

But  it  will  not  answer  to  make  the  intervals  too  long 
or  too  short,  or  the  occasions  too  seldom  or  too  frequent. 
Not  being  of  that  class  of  necessities  which  are  regulated 
by  nature  or  instinct,  they  are  subject,  more  or  less  to 


188  THE    ART    0E    TEACHING. 

the  control  of  the  judgment.  If  too  frequent,  they 
either  cloy  or  become  a  passion,  and  thereby  interfere 
with  other  duties.  If  the  intervals  are  too  great,  the 
exercises  lose  their  effects,  and  keep  the  powers  in  an 
unsettled  state.  As  the  day  seems  to  be  appointed  to 
labor,  and  the  night  to  rest,  and  since  recreation  stands 
as  a  uecessity  about  where  labor  does,  and  since  each 
day,  for  the  most  part,  embraces  the  whole  routine  of 
essential  duties,  these  things  would  seem  to  indicate  its 
frequency.  We  would  be  safe,  therefore,  in  saying 
that  it  should  be  at  least  daily. 

The  next  inquiry  would  be,  What  time  in  the  day  is 
most  appropriate  ?  In  this  we  should  be  guided  by 
judgment  again,  though  the  inclinations  point  in  the 
same  direction.  Since  the  powers  become  weary 
through  toil,  and  since  the  quiet  repose  of  nature  in- 
vites, the  evening,  between  the  hours  of  labor  and  rest, 
would  seem  to  be  the  appropriate  time,  though  of 
course  this  co-uld  not  apply  so  well  to  the  school.  It  will 
therefore  become  necessary  to  select  other  times  for  the 
department  of  recreation  that  relates  to  it:  and  since 
the  regular  recesses .  are  not  employed  with  other 
duties,  a  part,  at  least,  of  this  time  should  be  devoted 
to  some  regular  and  well  directed  physical  exercise. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  in  a  great  many  in- 
stances, this  time  is  spent  to  little  purpose,  compara- 
tively— usually  in  some  trifling  amusement,  or  idle 
gossip,  without  any  reference  to  the  wants  or  the  suf- 
fering of  the  body.  If  a  game  of  any  kind  is  selected, 
it  is  just  about  as  likely  to  be  injurious  as  beneficial. 
Little  or  no  attention  is  given  to  direct  the  exercises  to 
those  parts  of  the  body  that  need  them,  much  less  to 
restrain  or  distribute  them  in  due  proportion.  These 
and  other  circumstances  seem  to  point  to  the  regular 


RECREATION.  189 

recess  as  a  proper  time  when  a  part,  at  least,  of  the 
great  objects  of  recreation  could  be  secured.  This  ar- 
rangement would  render  necessary  a  little  direction 
from  the  teacher,  as  we  have  remarked  in  another 
place.  His  presence  and  influence  are  also  necessary  ; 
lirst,  because  if  recreation  is  worth  anything,  it  is  worth 
directing ;  secondly,  it  should  be  guarded  from  excess 
and  abuses  from  other  sources  ;  thirdly,  the  teacher's 
presence,  or  influence  otherwise,  will  have  a  tendenc}' 
to  restrain  evil  passions  and  vulgar  and  profane  words; 
fourthly,  it  gives  him  the  best  opportunity  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  dispositions  and  habits  of  the 
pupils ;  fifthly,  the  teacher  himself  needs  the  exercise. 
It  will  clear  his  head  and  heart  both,  from  the  brood- 
ing cares  and  perplexities  incident  to  the  profession, 
and  will  in  no  measure  detract  from  his  dignity.  But 
it  will  be  found  necessary  to  employ  a  small  portion  of 
the  time  outside  of  the  regular  recesses.  This  will  fall 
under  what  we  have  denominated  business  moments: 
when  the  books  and  study  should  be  laid  aside  for  a 
few  moments  to  engage  in  the  hand,  arm  and  body 
movements,  such  as  described  at  the  end  of  this  chap- 
ter, under  the  head  of  Calisthenics. 

Section  2 — The  Place. — For  general  exercises, 
such  as  games  and  sports,  the  open  air  is,  by  all  means, 
preferable  ;  first,  because  of  the  purity  of  the  atmos- 
phere— an  indispensable  condition  to  recreation  ;  sec- 
ondly, because  of  the  greater  freedom  of  motion  that 
may  be  secured.  Every  school-house  should  have  a 
play-ground,  and  this  should  be  arranged  with  refer- 
ence to  its  uses,  just  as  the  school-room  is  with  refer- 
ence to  its  uses.  Where  a  play-ground  can  not  be  had, 
or  will  not  be  had,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  cities  and 


190  THE    ART   OF    TEACHING. 

large  towns,  a  play-room  should  be  fitted  up  with 
special  reference  to  the  wants  of  the  children.  This  is 
a  very  desirable  appendage  in  all  cases,  since  in  inclem- 
ent weather  the  play-ground  would  become  useless. 
But  in  no  case  should  the  school-room  be  used  for 
games  and  sports,  much  less  for  general  romping. 
It  may  be  used,  however,  for  regular  calisthenic 
exercises. 

Again :  the  places  of  recreation  and  amusement 
should  be  free  from  mud  and  tilth  of  every  kind;  and 
should  be  far  enough  removed  from  any  public  high- 
way, place  of  general  resort,  or  dangerous  precipice, 
rocks,  rivers,  lakes,  ponds,  or  any  thing  that  would 
endanger  either  the  health  or  clothing,  lives  or  morals 
of  the  pupils.  Too  little  attention  is  paid  to  this 
matter.  A  dingy,  dark  prison-house  of  a  place  for 
play,  is  about  as  objectionable  as  it  would  be  for  study 
or  recitation.  A  muddy  street,  or  forlorn  highway,  or 
dirty  yard  or  pen  is  not  much  better.  But  the  sur- 
roundings should  be  as  pleasant  as  possible.  All  per- 
haps are  aware  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  presence 
of  beauty  and  order.  They  elevate  and  refine  the  feel- 
ings. They  open  the  mind  to  free  enjoyment.  The 
blood  flows  with  increased  vigor,  because  the  heart  is 
glad.  The  waste  particles  are  removed  more  rapidly, 
and  the  deposits  are  made  in  greater  numbers,  and 
with  greater  certainty.  A  grove,  from  this  cause,  and 
since  it  abounds  in  the  greatest  variety  of  natural 
beauty,  which  renders  it  still  more  inviting,  becomes 
the  most  appropriate  place  for  a  summer  retreat.  In 
a  word,  the  place  should  be  selected  with  express 
reference  to  moral  and  aesthetic  as  well  as  physical 
culture. 


RECREATION.  191 

Sec  3 — The  Manner. — The  manner  in  which  these 
exercises  should  be  conducted  will  next  claim  a  brief 
attention.  The  reference  will  not  be  so  much  to  the 
nature  of  the  exercises  as  to  a  few  cautions  and  general 
directions. 

1.  Moderation  in  the  movements  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  these.  The  tendencies,  especially  after 
confinement  to  hard  study,  are  to  excess.  Students  in 
colleges,  who  perhaps  have  been  accustomed  to  active 
life,  are  liable  to  err  in  this  direction.  They  confine 
themselves  closely  to  study,  until  they  feel  the  impera- 
tive necessity  of  recreation  or  exercise,  when,  from  an 
excess  of  vitality,  they  enter  upon  it  so  suddenly  and 
so  violently,  that  they  often  impair  their  health  and 
endanger  their  lives.  All  exercises  of  this  kind,  and 
of  every  kind,  in  order  to  be  profitable,  must  be  ap- 
proached gradually,  and  increased  as  the  demand  in- 
creases. At  first  they  should  be  mild  and  of  short 
duration,  and,  on  each  succeeding  occasion,  augmented 
slightly,  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  until  the  utmost 
power  of  endurance  is  reached,  or  until  the  object, 
whatever  it  may  be,  is  accomplished. 

2.  Another  caution  seems  necessary  here,  i.  e.,  suit- 
able protection.  This  condition  or  requisite  is  too  much 
neglected,  especially  by  girls.  Their  clothing,  for  in- 
stance, is  often  insufficient,  both  as  to  amount  and 
style.  First,  it  should  be  composed  of  strong  but 
light  material,  but  enough  to  protect  the  whole  person 
from  the  chili  that  is  apt  to  follow  active  exercise.  If 
any  portion  of  the  clothing  is  removed  for  convenience, 
it  should  be  replaced  as  soon  as  the  exercise  ceases. 
Secondly,  it  should  be  as  equally  distributed  as  possible, 
covering  the  entire  arms  and  chest;  and  where  there 
is  danger  from  exposure  to  the  damp  ground,  the  feet 


192  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

should  be  well  protected.  Numerous  evils  arise  from 
the  simple  neglect  of  these  two  cautions.  Colds, 
headache,  rheumatism,  chills,  and  sometimes  severe 
attacks  of  dangerous  diseases  result.  Thirdly,  the 
style  of  dress  should  be  such  as  to  allow  perfect  free- 
dom to  all  the  parts,  and  especially  to  the  arms  and 
chest,  since  they  suffer  most  from  confinement  to 
study.  The  present  fashionable  style  is  at  war  with 
this  principle.  It  is  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  that  a 
young  lady  fashionably  dressed,  can  lift  her  elbows  as 
high  as  her  head,  without  rending  some  portion  of  her 
clothing  about  the  waist,  especially  if  the  motions  are 
violent,  as  they  should  be  in  calisthenics.  This  is  also 
true  of  the  fashionable  dress  of  boys  and  young  men. 
No  exercise  can  be  profitable  under  these  circumstan- 
ces. The  clothing,  therefore,  must  be  loose  enough  to 
allow  freedom  of  motion  and  freedom  of  circulation. 
But  enough  has  been  said,  the  world  over,  upon  the 
follies  of  fashion,  and  especially  upon  the  evils  of  tight- 
lacing,  to  correct  them  long  since. 

3.  The  mind  must  be  free  from  care  and  anxiety 
It  is  of  little  service  to  engage  in  physical  exercises 
for  the  sake  of  recreation,  when  the  mind  is  brooding 
over  some  hidden  grief,  harassed  by  care;  or  when  it 
is  absorbed  in  study.  There  must  be  a  relaxation 
All  these  things  must  be  abandoned  for  the  time  be 
ing;  and  there  should  be  a  delightful  play  of  cheerful- 
ness and  animal  spirits.  The  reason  for  this  will  be 
apparent  upon  a  moment's  reflection.  The  brain 
needs  the  rest,  and  the  body  and  limbs  need  the  ex- 
ercise. The  blood  should  be  attracted  from  the  for- 
mer, and  invigorated  and  vitalized  by  coming  in  con- 
tact with  pure  air,  and  being  supplied  with  whole- 
some   chyle.     It  then   returns,  laden  with  the  prin- 


RECREATION.  193 

ciples  of  life,  and  the  wheels  of  thought  again  roll  on 
with  increased  vigor. 

4.  There  should  be  an  object  in  view.  Hence  the  supe- 
riority of  the  games  of  rivalry  ;  of  the  pursuit  of  game 
in  hunting;  and  of  the  excursions  in  pursuit  of  speci- 
mens in  natural  history,  etc.,  as  described  in  "  physi- 
cal culture."  There  is  excitement  enough  in  connec- 
tion with  these  to  keep  up  that  healthy  How  of  animal 
spirit.  In  case  of  a  walk  or  a  ramble  in  the  woods, 
it  amounts  to  but  little  to  stroll  about  without  an  ob- 
ject, or  even  with  one,  if  that  object  is  inspired  by 
nothing  higher  than  the  mere  desire  to  exercise. 
Something  exciting  is  needed  to  make  the  mind  forget 
its  cares,  and  to  revel  in  the  pleasures  of  the  game  or 
chase. 

5.  Recreation,  as  a  general  thing,  should  be  taken  in 
pleasant  company.  "Iron  sharpeneth  iron;  so  a  man 
sharpeneth  the  countenance  of  his  friend."  It  is  not 
easy  to  estimate  the  value  of  human  sympathy,  or  the 
power  of  conversation.  They  may  enter  into  and 
form  a  part  of  nearly  all  forms  of  recreation.  They 
serve  as  a  medium  for  the  expulsion  of  gloomy 
thoughts,  and  for  the  introduction  of  pleasant  ones. 
Many  exercises  will  not  permit  a  connected  conversa- 
tion ;  but  even  in  these  cases,  the  pleasanter  the  com- 
pany the  better.  The  glow  of  sympathy,  the  beam- 
ing countenance,  the  common  object  and  mutual  en- 
ergy and  aims : — all  serve  to  dissipate  care,  to  invite 
happiness,  and  to  beget  a  healthy  flow  of  the  convivial 
spirit.  In  the  calisthenic  exercises,  the  music  and 
song,  with  which  they  are  usually  interspersed,  the 
graceful  motions  of  the  body,  and  all  the  enchantment 
of  the  various  figures  and  movemen£s^Jiave  a.  ten- 
dency to  beguile  care  and  sorro^^^^%3q|o  ;  active 

17  \P*  OP  THB^C|3^ 

(uyiVERSITT) 


194  THE    ART   OF    TEACHING. 

play  all  the  powers  that  please  and   delight  the  senses 
and  the  soul. 

When  conversation  can  be  carried  on,  the  theme 
should  not  be  too  grave  or  too  exciting,  or  else  there 
will  be  no  rest  to  the  mental  powers,  save  that  which 
might  be  experienced  from  a  change  of  thought.  It 
should  turn  upon  pleasant  topics,  and  should  be  rather 
lively  than  otherwise,  even  to  the  merry  jest  and  the 
hearty  laugh:  the  laugh  is  particularly  valuable.  It 
shakes  the  cobwebs  from  the  brain  and  inactivity  from 
the  lungs:  it  stirs  the  sleepy  tide  of  the  vital  stream. 
It  is  a  perfect  tonic,  and  acts  with  a  more  desirable 
force  upon  the  liver  than  a  dozen  doses  of  "  blue  mass.  " 

Article   3— The  Varieties. 

The  various  kinds  of  physical  exercises  have  been 
frequently  referred  to,  in  the  progress  of  our  investiga- 
tions ;  so  that  at  present,  it  only  remains  to  present  a 
classification  of  those  that  may  be  used  most  advan- 
tageously in  the  schools.  In  doing  this,  we  shall  not 
attempt  an  exhaustive  list.  We  prefer  to  give  the 
outline  in  connection  with  a  description  of  some  of 
the  most  appropriate  and  convenient  exercises,  and 
leave  the  subject  for  whatever  suggestions  and  im- 
provements may  be  made  upon  it. 

Those  that  relate  particularly  to  the  school,  are  the 
following.  1.  For  out-door  exercises,  innocent  and 
active  games  of  rivalry  stand  perhaps  among  the  first. 
What  we  mean  by  innocent  is,  free  from  any  immoral 
tendencies,  such  as  betting,  or  any  in  which  the  loss 
of  property  or  character  is  concerned,  or  any  in  which 
the  evil  passions  are  necessarily  aroused — thos-3  that 
are  free  from  the  contaminating  influence  of  vice. 
What  we  mean  by  active  games,  are  those  combining 


RECREATION.  195 

the  lively  exercise  of  the  physical  powers,  without 
impairing  their  strength  or  activity  ;  not  those  trifling 
amusements, — such  as  "  marbles,  "  "  pins  "  or  "  but- 
ton," nor  yet  the  silly  nonsense  of  "ring  around  a 
rosy,"  or  "  oats,  peas,  beans  and  barley  grow  !  ''  nor 
those  on  the  other  hand,  requiring  too  severe  action 
such  as  violent  running  or  jumping  (except  as  prac- 
ticed in  the  gymnasium),  wrestling  or  boxing,  or  any 
thing  that  would  have  a  tendency  to  injure  or  impair 
the  physical  powers,  or  soil,  or  otherwise  damage  the 
clothing. 

The  following  are  among  some  that  may  be  safely 
practiced,  provided  they  are  properly  cared  for  by  the 
teacher :  1.  Ball,  in  all  the  varieties  in  which  it  is 
commonly  practiced.  This  is  the  great  play  of  the 
school,  and  it  is  doubtful,  whether  any  other  of  equal 
merit  could  supply  its  place.  It  is  a  healthy  and 
dignified  play,  and  may  be  practiced  by  nearly  all 
classes,  and  in  some  varieties  by  girls  as  well  as  boys. 

2.  Throwing  the  discus  or  pitching  quoits,  rolling  or 
playing  at  ten  pins,  are  remarkably  healthful  exercises 
for  the  arms  and  chest,  provided  both  arms  are  used  ; 
and  we  see  no  good  reason  why  they  could  not.  These 
exercises,  however,  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  gym- 
nasium, and  are  considered  appropriate  only  for  boys; 
but  I  see  no  good  reason  why  girls  might  not  partici- 
pate in  some  of  them,  at  least.  How  much  better 
this  than  the  perpetual  idleness  to  which  they  are 
doomed  by  the  hypocritical  notions  of  a  fashionable 
world!  How  ennobling  and  dignifying  when  com- 
pared with  that  insipid  nonsense,  which  constitutes 
too  much  of  their  exercises  (?) !  What  health  and 
development  of  their  chests  and  arms  it  would  give 
them  !  The  blessings  they  would  thus  be  enabled  to 
3fi 


196  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

transmit  to  their  posterity,  would  more  than  compen- 
sate for  any  odium  that  might  be  heaped  upon  them 
by  bigots  and  hypocrites. 

3.  Skating  and  coasting  are  forms  of  amusement  which 
certainly  possess  many  excellencies,  though  for  the 
want  of  convenient  localities  they  must  be  circum- 
scribed, so  far  at  least  as  relates  to  the  school.  The  first 
is  eminently  adapted  to  the  wants  of  both  sexes  and 
nearly  all  ages  ;  and,  could  it  be  free  from  the  dangers 
too  often  connected  with  it,  it  might  be  practiced  with 
the  best  of  results. 

4.  Pleasure  and  scientific  excursions  may  be  practiced 
in  connection  with  school  duties,  though  not  with  the 
same  regularity  that  others  are.  They  should  be  a 
kind  of  holiday  pleasure,  to  which  the  pupils  may 
look  with  expectation  and  delight.  See  Chapter 
Second. 

5.  Calisthenic  Exercises.  The  practical  illustration 
of  the  above  named  exercises,  as  practiced  in  our  best 
schools,  will  occupy  the  remainder  of  this  chapter.  It 
will  be  found  that  these  exercises  furnish  a  greater 
amount  of  rational  recreation  and  amusement  than  all 
others ;  and  at  the  same  time  can  be  practiced,  for  the 
most  part,  in  the  school-ioom. 

For  the  following  arrangement,  and  brief  but  accu- 
rate description  of  them,  we  are  indebted  to  the  en- 
terprising teachers  of  the  city  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  in 
whose  schools  the  exercises  here  laid  down,  are  car- 
ried to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  This  system  has 
been  gathered  from  a  variety  of  authors,  and  possesses 
the  advantage  of  being  brief  yet  eminently  practical. 
It  contains  about  all  that  can  be  practiced  with  suc- 
cess in  the  common  school  and  college,  and  we  believe 
may  be  introduced,  in  some  form,  into  every  school  in 


RECREATION.  197 

the  country.  As  such  we  most  cheerfully  commend  it 
to  teachers  and  parents. 

The  most  of  the  following  exercises  are  arranged  for 
a  class  of  sixteen,  though  many  of  them  may  be  varied 
for  a  larger  or  a  smaller  number.  In  forming  for 
practice,  the  misses  are  always  arranged  in  a  circle, 
assuming : 

Standing  Position. — Head  erect,  shoulders  thrown 
back,  chest  forward,  hands  at  the  side,  and  feet  at 
an  angle  of  about  60  deg.  The  circle  is  divided  into 
4  sections  ;  the  1st  in  each  section  being  its  leader. 
The  leader  in  the  1st  section  is  also  the  general  leader 
in  every  exercise.  The  1st  and  3d  leaders  stand  oppo- 
site each  other  ;  the  2d  and  4th  opposite.  The  1st  in 
the  circle,and  every  alternate  one, is  called  No.  1;  the 
2d, and  every  alternate  one,  No.  2. 

Marching  in  Circle. — Commence  with  right  foot, 
keep  uniform  time,  step  lightly.  (Here  follows  an 
exercise  in  the  March,  directed  by  the  teacher.) 

Steps. — Directions  for  practice. — School  Step. — Touch 
first  the  heel,  then  the  toe  of  the  right  foot  to  the  floor, 
at  the  same  time  springing  on  the  toe  of  the  left.  Re- 
peat with  left  foot  springing  on  right.  This  step  may 
also  be  taken  advancing  or  retreating. 

Spanish  Step. — Bring  left  foot  in  front  of  the  right, 
carrying  it  to  that  position  in  a  curve,  spriuging  at  the 
same  time  on  the  right  toe;  carry  it  in  the  same 
manner  back  to  the  standing  position.  Repeat,  bring- 
ing the  right  in  front  of  the  left  in  same  manner. 

Triple  Spring.  —  Extend  the  right  foot  in  front, 
resting  on  the  toe;  carry  it  to  the  right  side,  then 
resume  the  standing  position,  springing  on  the  left 
foot  with  each  change  of  the  right.  Repeat  the  same 
with  the  left  foot, springing  on  the  right. 


198  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

Quadruple  Spring. — Extend  r.  ft.  to  r.  side,  resting 
on  toe  ;  carry  it  to  1.  side  beyond  1.  foot ;  return  it  to 
r.  side,  then  resume  standing  position,  springing  on  1. 
ft.  at  each  change  of  right. 

Side  Step. — Carry  r.  ft.  to  r.  side,  resting  weight  on 
toe.  Bring  1.  ft.  behind  the  r.,  resting  on  toe.  Again 
advance  r.  ft.,  etc. 

Promenade  Step. — Extend  r.  ft.,  resting  on  toe  ;  bring 
1.  foot  forward  nearly  even  with  right,  bearing  the 
weight  lightly  upon  the  toe,  while  the  r.  is  again  ex- 
tended. Repeat,  extending  1.  foot  first.  An  easy 
gliding  motion  is  desirable. 

Slight  Courtesy. — Extend  r.  ft.  to  the  side,  place  the 
left  behind  the  right,  sink  and  then  rise.  Repeat,  ex- 
tending left  ft.  placing  r.  ft.  behind  left. 

Arm  Exercises. — With  marching  step  the  class  pass 
half  round  the  circle ;  the  1st  leader  and  her  mate  pass 
through  the  center  to  the  head  of  the  circle,  followed 
by  the  others,  and  form  columns,  all  the  "No.  l's  com- 
ing up  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  No.  2's. 

The  columns  being  formed,  they  separate,  by  each 
bowing  to  her  partner,  leaving  a  space  of  about  three 
feet  between  the  columns.  Then  with  school  step  the 
columns  advance,  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  space, 
then  retreat  with  the  same  step.  Then  to  give  space 
for  arm  exercises  let  the  alternate  ones  of  each  column 
advance  with  school  step  to  center  of  space,  thus : 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  ©  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

1st  Ex. — Raise  the  hands  to  the  top  of  the  head, 
throwing  them  off  with  force  to  the  side. 

2d. — Place  the  backs  of  the  hands  under  the  arms, 


RECREATION.  199 

throw   the   hands   forcibly    downward,  closing  them 
tightly. 

3d. — Place  the  tips  of  the  fingers  upon  the  shoulders 
in  front,  throw  the  arms  forward  in  a  straight  line,  at 
a  level  with  the  shoulders. 

4th. — Place  ends  of  fingers  upon  the  shoulders,  throw 
the  arms  to  the  sides  at  a  level  with  the  shoulders. 

5th. — Place  the  fingers  as  before;  throw  the  hands 
upward. 

6th. — Extend  the  arms  in  front,  with  the  palms  of 
the  hands  together.  Throw  them  backward,  meeting 
the  backs  of  the  hands.  Each  exercise  to  be  repeated 
8  or  12  times,  with  counting  or  singing. 

Figures. — 1st.  Winding  Circle. — The  1st  leader  pass- 
ing just  inside  the  circle,  commences  gradually  winding 
up  to  the  center,  with  side  step,  so  that  when  she  has 
reached  that  point,  the  form  of  the  figure  will  re- 
semble a  watch  spring.  Turning,  she  unwinds,  passing 
through  the  spaces  of  the  previous  winding,  until  a 
perfect  circle  is  formed.  Wind  up  again,  the  3d  leader 
passing  inside  the  circle,  winding  and  unwinding  in 
the  same  manner. 

Song  :  "  Lightly  How." 

2d.  Moving  Columns. — The  1st  and  3d  leaders  march 
through  the  center  of  the  circle,  passing  each  other  on 
the  right.  Each  describes  an  oval  figure.  They  pass 
each  other  three  times,  then  form  a  large  circle. 

Song  :  "  We  roam  through  forest  shades." 

3d.  Single  Columns. — Form  columns  as  for  arm  exer- 
cises. The  columns  being  formed,  the  No.  l's  pass  to 
the  right  with  promenade  step,  No.  2's  to  their  left 
describing  a  circle.  Meeting,  the  mates  join  hands, 
and,  continuing  the  step,  pass  up  to  the  place  where 
the  1st  couple  stood  in  the  columns.     Separate,  and 


200  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

pass  around  as  before ;  all  stop  in  the  columns  as  at 
first.     Pass  singly  to  the  left,  forming  a  large  circle. 

Song:  "Hail  Columbia." 

4th.  Intertwining  Promenade  Step. — No.  2's  step  inside 
circle,  facing  right  side,  No.  l's  facing  left  side.  Mates 
join  right  hands  as  they  stand;  commence  promenade 
step.  Each  No.  1  joins  her  left  hand  with  the  left  hand 
of  the  next  No.  2,  so  that  they  pass  each  other  with  the 
1st  step,  reversing  their  places,  No.  l's  being  inside  the 
circle,  No.  2's  outside  ;  No.  l's  join  hands  with  the 
next  No.  2's,  passing  her  with  promenade  step,  and 
again  exchanging  places ;  continue  this  until  mates 
meet  the  second  time. 

Song:  "Harvest  Hymn." 

5th.  Trio. — Pass  about  one-third  round  circle,  the 
1st  leader  stopping  on  the  outside  of  the  circle,  forms 
with  the  next  2  a  triangular  figure  ;  all  except  the  last 
4  form  similar  figure;  the  4  stand  in  the  center  thus  : 

2        1  1 

2  2         1     1st  leader. 

1         2 
12      2         2  2 

1  1        2 

Lead  oft* into  a  large  circle  with  side  step;  the  1st 
leader  passing  oft"  1st,  while  the  other  circles  take  the 
side  step  in  their  several  separate  circles,  leading  oft 
in  time  to  keep  the  line  as  unbroken  as  possible. 
Song  :  "  Up  the  hills  on  a  bright  sunny  morn." 
6th.  Double  Columns. — Pass  half  round  circle,  the 
1st  leader  and  mate  stopping  at  the  center.  The  last 
half  form  half  a  column  in  the  same  way,  the  3d  leader 
and  mate  coming  up  opposite  the  1st  leader  and  mate, 
thus: 


RECREATION.  201 

i      z 

1  5 

Lead  oft"  with  promenade  1  £  step,  the  1st 

and  3d  leaders  passing  to  1  g  their    right, 

and  their  mates  to  the  left.  2  1 

Having  described  half  a  2  1  circle,  come 

up   as   before.     Separate  2  1  into    two 

2  1 

circles,  the  1st  half  forming  one,  the  second  half  the 
other.  Take  the  quadruple  spring,  pass  oft*  with  the 
promenade  step,  as  before.  Form  the  columns  the  3d 
time,  and  pass  into  a  large  circle. 

Song  :  "  Bring  Flowers." 

7th.  Fronting  Colum.ns. — Form  single  columns,  sep- 
arating as  for  arm  exercises.  No.  l's  commencing  at 
the  head  of  the  columns,  join  hands  with  their  mates 
and  pass  down  through  the  columns  with  promenade 
step,  then  separate,  meeting  after  having  passed  half 
round  circle;  go  through  the  center  and  separate  as 
before.  Again  passing  half  round  circle,  the  1st  leader 
and  mate  stop  in  the  place  they  first  occupied  in  the 
columns.  The  2d  couple  go  above  the  1st,  join  hands, 
and  pass  down  between  them  to  their  places.  Each 
succeeding  couple  in  like  manner  go  above  the  1st 
through  the  columns  to  their  places.  Then,  1st  leader 
passing  down  through  the  columns  with  side  step,  each 
in  order  join  hands,  and  with  same  step  pass  into  a 
large  circle. 

Song  :  "  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave." 

8th.  The  Wreath. — No.  2's  step  inside  the  circle,  face 
their  mates,  and,  joining  hands,  take  the  Spanish  step; 
then  all  facing  the  center  of  the  circle,  the  inner  circle 
take  the  side  step  once  around ;  the  outside  circle  once 
around,  both  circles  together  once.    The  No.  l's  and 


202  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

No.  2's  joining  hands  in  their  respective  eircles,courte- 
sy  four  times,  the  fourth  time  the  No.  2's  courtesying 
under  the  arched  arms  of  No.  l's.  Being  thus  twined, 
pass  once  around  with  side  step  ;  untwine  by  No.  2's 
courtesying  from  under  the  arched  arms  of  No.  l's. 
The  inner  circle  pass  once  around  with  side  step;  the 
outside  circle  once  ;  both  together  once.  No.  2's  face 
their  mates  and  courtesy  half  round  the  circle;  the 
inner  circle  then  pass  once  round  with  side  step  ;  the 
outside  circle  once;  both  together  half  round.  Then 
form  large  circles,  by  the  No.  2's  falling  back  into  the 
outside  circle. 

Song:  For  Spanish  side  step:  "A  rosy  wreath  we 
twine  for  thee."  For  courtesying  :  "  What  fairy-like 
music." 

9th.  The  Bower. — Pass  half  round  circle ;  the  1st 
leader  and  her  mate  stop  facing  each  other,  and  with 
hands  joined  elevate  them,  while  the  2d  couple  pass 
under  their  arched  arms,  stopping  just  above  them, 
joining  and  raising  hands  in  same  manner  ;  the  3d  and 
4th  couples  in  same  manner ;  the  3d  leader  with  the 
remainder  of  the  class  pass  under  the  arched  arms, 
until  reaching  the  head  of  the  columns,  then  turns  to 
the  left,  leading  to  the  foot  of  the  columns  ;  then  again 
under  arched  arms  to  the  head  of  the  columns  ;  then 
turns  to  the  right  leading  to  the  foot;  then  joining 
hands,  they  pass  with  side  step  to  the  head  of  the  col- 
umns ;  the  1st  leader  and  mate,  with  each  of  the 
couples  above  in  order,  joining  hands  and  with  side 
step  pass  into  a  large  circle.  Wreaths  are  desirable  in 
forming  arches,  if  convenient. 

Song  :  "  When  the  day  with  rosy  light." 


204 


THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 


SYNOPSIS   VI. 


OBJECTS 

AND 
MEANS. 


QUALIFICA- 
,     TIONS  AND 
REGULA- 
TIONS. 


QUALITIES 
AND 

METHODS. 


f  Order.    Authority.    Obedienoe. 
Conservative  -j  Self-government.    Employment. 

I  Adjusting  and  removing  temptation* 

f  Conviction.    Recognition  of  guilt. 
Reformative,  -j  The  claims  of  justice. 

I  Punishment.    Objects  and  Method». 

r  Instruction. 
Protective.    -I  Encouragement. 
L  Watchfulness. 

{Self-knowledge.     Shrewdness. 
Foresight.    Penetration. 
Good  common  sense. 

r  Discrimination.    Comprehension. 
Judicial.       -|  Deliberation.    Explicitness. 
l_  Firmness  without  obstinacy. 

r  Energy.     Promptness 
•    Executive.     J  Determination  without  passion. 
^  Generosity.    Sympathy. 


r  Appearance.    Demeanor. 

Personal      J  Ease  and  elegance  in  address. 
Worth. 

L  Sociability.    Vivacity.    Good  health. 

( Moderation.    Forbearance. 
Self-control,  -j  Disinterestedness.    Earnestness. 
I  Confidence  without  affectation. 

r  Fidelity.    Integrity.    Zeal. 
„  Gen'rl  Man     j  justjce  mingled  with  mercy. 

AGEMENT.  | 

t  Mildness  of  manner.    Severity  of  purpose 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  205 


CHAPTER   VI. 

SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT. 

We  now  approach  one  of  the  most  difficult  yet 
most  important  subjects  of  the  whole  list  of  school- 
room duties,  viz.,  Government,  or  the  control  and 
management  of  schools.  Much,  in  a  general  way,  has 
been  said  upon  this  subject.  This  seemed  necessary, 
and  indeed  unavoidable,  since  the  very  nature  and 
design  of  "  school-  room  duties"  are  such  as  to  involve 
the  mode  in  which  they  should  be  conducted. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  subject  of  government,  we 
shall  avoid  its  general  characteristics,  except  so  far  as 
they  relate  to  the  school,  and  shall  endeavor  to  point 
out  a  system  of  government  whose  administration 
shall  render  the  school  self-governing,  and  fit  its  pupils 
for  that  task,  after  they  become  men  and  women. 

All  governments  arise  from  about  the  same  necessi- 
ties, have  nearly  the  same  origin,  and  should  have  the 
same  objects  in  view,  viz.,  the  good  of  the  governed. 
The  essential  principles  of  government  are  the  same 
every-where,  the  distinctions  arising  more  from  the 
mode  of  administration  than  from  any  necessary  dif- 
ference in  the  principles  themselves.  Hence  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  government,  such  as  the  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  democracy,  etc.,  with  their  various  re- 
straints and  modifications.  All  these  forms,  doubt- 
less, had  their  origin  in  the  family,  social  and  com 
mercial  relations,  and  intercourse  of  the  races. 


206  THE   ART    OF   TEACHING. 

Without  stopping  to  discuss  the  relative  merits  of 
these  several  forms,  we  remark  that  the  school  is  an 
association  composed  of  the  elements  of  families,  rep- 
resenting the  individual  interests  of  each,  and  expand- 
ing and  combining  these,  so  as  to  meet  the  wants  of 
the  community  and  the  State.  It  therefore  represents 
all  these  departments,  and  should  be  so  conducted  as 
not  to  interfere  with  any  of  them;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  it  should  prepare  its  subjects  for  a  proper 
appreciation  of,  and  participation  in,  the  duties  and 
responsibilities  enjoined  by  these  several  relations.  In 
other  words,  the  school  should  be  the  model  family, 
the  model  community,  the  model  State.  Therefore, 
whatever  objects  government  has  in  view,  in  any  re- 
lation in  life,  these  find,  at  least  a  similitude  in  a  well 
organized  and  well  conducted  school.  It  should  have 
all  the  sympathies,  all  the  restraints,  all  the  encourage- 
ments, and  all  the  high  and  noble  purposes  that  ani- 
mate, subdue,  and  elevate  the  human  powers.  It 
should  be  a  place  in  which  is  warmed  into  life  every 
principle  of  intelligence,  and  every  generous  impulse 
of  the  soul :  in  which  every  evil  passion  is  subdued, 
and  every  unholy  desire  checked. 

In  form  and  administration,  the  school  government 
should,  perhaps,  resemble,  as  much  as  any  other,  that 
particular  kind  of  monarchy  called  the  patriarchy; 
though  it  should  certainly  possess  many,  and  perhaps 
all  the  restraints  to  the  abuse  of  power,  that  are  com- 
mon to  the  best  republics.  And  we  might  add  here, 
that  no  teacher  is  prepared  to  wield  this  potent  instru- 
mentality, unless  he  has  studied  well  its  nature  and 
design. 

In  presenting  the  claims  of  this  subject,  we  shall 
endeavor  to  follow  an  order  similar  to  that  observed 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  207 

in  the  other  topics;  though  such  is  the  peculiar  nature 
of  this,  that  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  treat  the 
objects  and  means  of  securing  them  in  the  same  con- 
nection; and  so,  in  the  second  place,  the  qualifications 
and  requisites;  and  lastly,  the  directions  to  be  observed 
in  the  administration  of  government. 

Article  1— Objects  and  Means. 

It  is  a  matter  of  astonishment,  as  well  as  regret,  that 
so  few  have  a  correct  understanding,  or  an  adequate 
appreciation  of  the  real  objects  of  government,  or  of 
the  means  to  be  employed  to  secure  them.  The  mo- 
tives to  obedience  have  been  so  grossly  perverted,  the 
incentives  to  duty  have  been  so  essentially  weakened, 
and  the  abuse  of  power  has  been  so  great,  that  not 
only  many  false  theories  have  arisen,  but  the  very  ex- 
istence of  sound  family  and  school  government  has 
been  endangered.  The  mere  matter  of  control  or 
mastery  on  the  one  hand,  without  consulting  the 
fitness  of  the  means  of  securing  it,  or  the  uses  to 
which  it  should  be  devoted  when  secured;  and,  on  the 
other,  the  almost  total  abandonment  of  such  control, 
would  be  about  as  true  an  exposition  or  outline  of 
these  two  extremes  as  could  be  given;  while  the  inter- 
mediate steps  have  been  occupied  with  many  errors 
and  many  excellencies.  Some  of  these  will  be  pointed 
out  as  we  progress. 

Section  1 — Nature  of  the  Objects. — The  objects 
of  government,  as  they  relate  particularly  to  the 
school,  may,  for  convenience,  be  considered  in  three 
classes,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  tbeir  nature 
and  office.  1.  They  are  conservative  and  self-perpetuat- 
ing;  conservative,  in  that  they  maintain   universally 


208  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

the  same  policy,  and  enforce  the  same  claims  and 
obligations ;  self-perpetuating,  in  that  these  claims, 
etc.,  are  produced  and  reproduced  by  the  necessary 
development  of  man's  innate  powers,  and  are  co-exten- 
sive with  his  present  relations :  i.  e.,  the  power  that 
controls  arises  not  only  from  man's  necessary  exist- 
ence, but  is  self-sustaining,  since  it  is  itself  controlled 
through  the  agency  of  perpetual  causes,  acting  and 
reacting,  producing  and  reproducing  both  themselves 
and  their  necessities.  This  will  be  more  apparent  as 
the  nature  of  these  objects  and  duties   is  unfolded. 

Among  the  first  of  these  conservative  objects,  and 
one  standing  high  as  a  means  of  securing  the  ultimate 
ends  of  all  government — viz.,  the  universal  happiness 
of  the  governed — is  good  order.  Without  this,  all 
the  secondary  objects  would  fail  of  accomplishment. 
It  stands  as  a  sentinel,  truly  conservative,  and  admits 
no  fanaticism  or  discord  to  reign  in  the  ranks  of  the 
governed.  It  is  that  to  which  all  other  objects  tend. 
It  pre-supposes,  in  the  first  place,  rightly  constituted 
authority;  and,  in  the  second,  obedience  to  that 
authority.  All  other  objects  seem  to  conspire  as 
much  to  produce  this,  and  through  this,  the  happi- 
ness of  the  governed,  as  any  independent  result.  It 
becomes  emphatically,  therefore,  both  an  object  of 
government,  and  the  chief  medium  through  which  its 
whole  machinery  is  moved,  in  accomplishing  all  other 
results. 

We  remark,  in  the  next  place,  that  there  must  be  a 
standard  of  order,  and  this  must  be  backed  by  author- 
ity; for  of  what  avail  is  law  or  regulations  without 
the  ability  to  enforce  their  claims,  in  case  of  any  re- 
sistance or  disobedience?  It  is  this  that  adds  the 
peculiar  dignity  to  law,  and  commands  that  respect 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  209 

which  renders  it  "  a  terror  to  evil  doers;  but  the  praise 
(and  protection)  of  them  that  do  well."  This  stand- 
ard becomes  a  tribunal  to  which  are  referred  cases  of 
difficult  adjudication;  and  before  which  all  our  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong  are  summoned  to  testify  in  the 
struggle  which  justice  and  mercy,  as  advocates,  wage, 
in  the  contest  of  truth  with  falsehood :  not,  however, 
that  these  advocates  contend,  the  one  for  the  right 
and  the  other  for  the  wrong  ;  but  the  one  clamors  for 
the  blood  of  the  guilty  victim,  while  the  other,  admit- 
ting equally  the  guilt  of  the  offender,  and  the  claims 
of  the  law  upon  him,  yet  interposes  its  scepter,  and 
points  to  the  remedial  agents,  by  which  the  victim 
may  not  only  be  saved  but  reformed,  and  yet  the  claims 
of  justice  be  satisfied.  Conscience  is  the  great  arbiter  in 
this  contest,  and  should  be  the  ruling  principle  in  the 
decisions  of  justice.  The  more  of  this  ingredient 
there  is  mingled  with  the  administration  of  govern- 
ment, the  better.  It  is  the  conservator  of  order,  and 
the  safeguard  of  authority. 

This  standard  also  implies  obedience,  on  the  part  of 
the  subject,  to  the  properly  constituted  authority  :  and 
the  obligations  become  more  or  less  binding,  according 
as  the  standard  approaches  perfection.  Obedience  im- 
plies motives,  which  should  be  such  as  will  secure  the 
prompt,  willing,  and  even  cheerful  compliance  with 
the  behests  of  authority,  without  impairing  any  essen- 
tial principle  of  independence.  This  is  the  ultimate 
object  of  all  obedience;  while  forcible  measures  should 
only  be  employed  for  the  temporary  purpose  of  re- 
moving the  obstacles  to  voluntary  submission.  The 
different  methods  that  may  be  resorted  to  in  order  to 
secure  obedience,  will  be  referred  to  again  in  the  next 
18 


210  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

section.  They  have  also  been  discussed  briefly  in 
former  chapters. 

2.  Another  object  in  immediate  connection  with 
those  already  named,  is  that  of  self-government,  or  the 
power  the  individual  subject  acquires  to  control  his 
own  energies.  In  this  will  be  seen  the  self-perpetuating 
nature  of  government.  It  should  be  the  especial  ob- 
ject of  the  family  and  school,  so  to  develop  the  powers 
of  the  subject,  that  when  the  pressure  of  extraneous 
control  (if  indeed  there  is  need  of  any)  is  removed,  he 
shall  go  on,  a  self-acting  and  self-governing  agent.  This 
is  the  object  which  is  sadly  overlooked,  and  one  to 
which  we  call  special  attention. 

It  is  generally  thought  sufficient,  at  least  in  the 
school,  that  the  child  be  manageable,  or  entirely  sub- 
missive, while  subject  to  the  government,  which  is 
often  so  arbitrary  and  severe  as  to  remove  all  necessity 
for  the  exercise  of  any  other  power  than  that  of  mere 
submission — if  indeed,  this  can  be  called  the  exercise 
of  any  power  at  all.  The  labor  and  consequent  ad- 
vantages of  such  control  are  transferred  from  the  sub- 
ject that  needs  them,  to  the  machinery  that  enforces 
them.  Hence,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the 
former  should  languish  for  the  want  of  them,  while 
the  latter  should  be  impaired  from  excessive  use. 

It  is  a  well  known  law  of  mind  as  well  as  of  body, 
that  the  legitimate  use  of  any  power  strengthens  it;  and 
that  neglect  weakens  it.  Now  if  these  powers  of  self- 
government  are  not  brought  into  active  service  in  that 
stage  of  their  growth  when  they  are  assuming  form  and 
character,  they  are  neglected,  and  consequently  weak- 
ened. This  is  the  inevitable  result  of  excessive  govern- 
ing, or  of  that  form  which  takes  all  responsibility  from 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT. 


211 


the  hands  of  the  governed  and  forces  submission 
"nolens  volens."  Hence,  again,  that  form  of  govern- 
ment which  places  the  greatest  amount  of  responsibilty 
in  the  hands  of  the  subject,  and  only  holds  him  ac- 
countable for  the  proper  use  of  it,  is  best  adapted  to 
the  wants  of  rational  and  responsible  beings.  Self- 
government,  therefore,  is  both  an  object  of  govern- 
ment and  a  means  of  securing  and  perpetuating  its  own 
blessings  to  those  who  are  its  subjects. 

It  will  be  seen  that  one  of  the  most  successful  meth- 
ods of  cultivating  the  powers  of  self-government,  is  to 
afford  the  individual  healthy  employment  for  all  his 
powers.  Indeed,  it  is  quite  certain,  that  if  the  proper 
amount  and  kind  of  employment  were  furnished  to  all 
the  members  of  society,  not  only  vice  and  crime  would 
diminish,  but  man  would  acquire  the  power  to  direct 
his  energies  to  the  full  accomplishment  of  the  purposes 
of  life.  We  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  remark,  in 
the  course  of  this  work,  that  none  of  these  powers  were 
created  in  vain, — not  for  idleness,  nor  yet  for  mischief 
or  for  tormentors;  that  their  chief  delight,  as  well  as 
means  of  growth  and  sources  of  power,consists  in  exer- 
cise, which  they  seek  as  naturally  as  the  plant  seeks 
the  light  and  moisture ;  and  that  if  left  unemployed  or 
uncontrolled,  the  great  probability  is  that  they  will 
run  into  mischief  or  excess.  For  a  description  of  the 
various  kinds  of  labor  and  rest,  recreation  and  devo- 
tion, the  reader  is  referred  to  those  sections  where 
these  topics    are  treated  more  at  length. 

Another  successful  mode  of  cultivating  the  powers 
of  self-control  is,  by  removing  temptations,  such  as  are 
likely  to  prove  too  strong  for  resistance,  and  of  ad- 
justing others  that  must  be  met;  so  that  their  conquest 
by  the  pupil  shall  prove  a  source  of  power.     This  is 


212  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

one  of  the  most  successful  means  of  culture  that  can 
be  devised,  and  one  that  is  most  shamefully  neglected. 
Indeed,  in  a  great  many  instances  a  course  is  pursued 
which  produces  results  exactly  the  opposite  of  those 
named  in  the  above.  The  multiplication  of  commands 
beyond  a  reasonable  extent,  the  great  majority  of 
which  stand  a  better  chance  to  be  broken  than  obeyed, 
instead  of  removing  temptation,  and  becoming,  as  per- 
haps they  were  intended,  a  means  of  restraint  ami  a 
bulwark  of  defense,  only  add  so  much  to  the  chances 
of  disobedience.  They  serve  as  so  many  traps  to  en- 
snare the  wayward  feet  of  childhood  into  habits  of  dis- 
respect and  deceit.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  it 
were  better  not  to  give  commands  at  all,  if  the  pros- 
pects for  disobedience  are  greater  than  those  of  obedi- 
ence; since,  in  most  cases,  the  sin  of  disobedience  lies 
more  in  the  simple  act  itself  than  in  any  results  that 
might  follow  from  the  thing's  being  or  not  being  per- 
formed. The  habits  of  scolding,  continual  fault-find- 
ing and  threatening  are  also  fruitful  sources  of  tempta- 
tion both  to  stubbornness  and  to  treachery.  But  these 
subjects  have  been  treated  elsewhere.  Their  appear- 
ance here,  however,  will  readily  be  accounted  for,  when 
it  is  remembered  that  school  government  extends  to 
every  and  all  departments  of  the  educational  processes. 
Again  :  the  associations  are  a  fruitful  source  of  good 
or  evil.  Bad  company  is  to  be  deprecated  on  all  occa- 
sions, while  the  good  should  be  sought.  It  is  scarcely 
possible,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  to  escape  the 
contaminating  influences  of  the  one,  or  to  counteract 
entirely  the  influences  of  the  other;  yet  there  are  two 
extremes  here  worthy  of  special  notice.  The  iirst  is, 
the  practice  of  exposing  children  to  the  influence  of 
vice,  without  first  fortifying  their  minds  to  repel  it; 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  213 

and  the  other  is,  the  practice  of  depriving  children  of 
the  associations  of  the  world,  for  fear  they  may  con- 
tract the  evil  habits  of  the  world.  The  two  extremes 
are  about  equally  dangerous ;  and,  what  seems  a  little 
paradoxical,  lead  to  precisely  the  same  results.  The 
influences  and  the  results  of  the  first  course  are  suffi- 
ciently apparent.  The  second,  however,  is  worthy  of 
further  notice. 

It  is  a  very  common  remark,  and  not  without  its 
significance  and  truth,  that  those  children  who  have, 
for  the  greater  part  of  their  lives,  been  secluded  from 
society  for  the  purpose  of  shielding  them  from  sin, 
when  once  exposed  to  temptation,  fall  most  readily  a 
prey  to  it.  The  reasons  are  quite  obvious.  Never 
having  been  exposed  or  tried,  their  powers  of  resist- 
ance are  weak.  Never  having  conquered,  they  know 
not  the  glory  of  the  struggle  or  of  conquest. 

Since  children,  if  they  live  at  all,  must  live  in  the 
world,  and  be  exposed  sooner  or  later  to  the  influences 
of  vice;  since  they  must,  from  necessity,  meet  and 
overcome  temptation  or  be  overcome  by  it;  it  were  far 
better  to  bring  them  in  contact  with  those  influences, 
under  circumstances  where  they  can  be  assisted  and 
defended  in  case  the  temptation  should  prove  too 
strong,  than  to  keep  them  in  childish  weakness  all 
their  days.  By  this  we  do  not  mean  that  they  shall 
become  wicked  that  they  may  learn  what  wickedness 
is,  or  that  special  temptations  shall  be  invented  in 
order  to  try  their  strength  ;  but  that  they  shall  be 
strengthened  and  fortified  against  the  encroachments 
of  both. 

There  are  constantly  operating  within  us,  and  upon 
us  from  without,  two  distinct  classes  of  influences, 
called  by  one  writer  the  "Passive  Impressions,  and 


214  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

the  Active  Principles."*  The  first  includes  all  the  im- 
pressions that  are  made  upon  the  mind,  from  influences 
of  an  objective  character;  the  second,  all  those  inter- 
nal emotions  and  desires  that  arise  from  subjective 
causes.  Now,  the  meetiug  of  these  two  influences  and 
their  consequent  agreement  or  disagreement  will  de- 
termine the  character  of  the  result. 

Suppose,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  influences  or 
passive  impressions  are  bad,  such  for  example,  as  a 
temptation  to  evil ;  and  that  there  is  an  acquiescence 
on  the  part  of  the  individual,  the  active  principles 
from  within  rising  up  and  coalescing  with  the  impres- 
sion from  without,  the  result,  in  this  case,  will  be  bad, 
since  the  deed  itself  will  be  evil,  and  the  power  to  re- 
sist a  like  impression  the  second  time,  will  be  weak- 
ened. But  suppose  the  active  principle  in  man,  which 
perhaps  in  this  case  is  only  another  name  for  the  will 
enlightened  by  reason  and  strengthened  by  conscience, 
rises  up  and  opposes  the  temptation  and  overcomes  it ; 
the  result  will  be  a  good  one,  since  an  evil  deed  has 
been  avoided,  a  temptation  overcome,  and  consequent 
strength  has  been  developed  to  resist  like  encroach- 
ments in  future;  but,  as  in  the  first  case,  the  power  to 
resist  grows  weaker  and  weaker,  at  each  successive 
temptation,  until  the  poor  soul  loses  all  power  to  resist, 
and  is  led  captive  at  the  will  of  Satan,  chained  as  it 
were,  to  the  wheel  of  vice,  and  dragged,  it  may  be  an 
unwilling,  yet  powerless  victim  in  the  slavery  of  sin; 
in  the  other,  at  each  successive  conquest,  the  power  to 
resist  grows  stronger  and  stronger ;  until  by  and  by, 
the  man  stands  up  free,  emancipated,  as  it  were,  from 
the  thraldom  into  which  temptation  would  force  him. 

*  Joseph  John  Gurney. 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  215 

Hence  the  injunction  to  "resist  the  Devil,  and  he  will 
flee  from  you,"  etc. 

Bat  take  another  case :  Suppose  the  outward  impres- 
sion is  a  good  one,  and  the  active  principle  rises  up 
and  meets  it,  as  in  the  first  case  it  did  the  bad  one,  the 
result  will  be  good,  since  the  deed  itself  is  good,  and 
it  is  obedience  to  a  demand  made  by  a  legitimate  de- 
sire. But  suppose  this  good  impression  is  resisted,  as 
in  the  second  case,  the  result  then  will  be  its  opposite, 
since  there  are  both  disobedience  to  a  legitimate  de- 
mand, and  resistance  to  good  impressions.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  individual  grows  harder  and 
harder  to  impressions,  until  what  moved  him  once  will 
scarcely  make  an  impression  now.  This  will  account 
for  the  indifference  and  hardness  often  produced  by 
repeated  warnings.  "He  that  being  often  reproved 
hardeneth  his  neck,  shall  suddenly  be  cut  off,  and  that 
without  remedy." 

The  same  principle  obtains  in  all  the  other  cases. 
Take  the  first,  for  instance:  the  first  time  temptation 
to  commit  an  act  of  injustice  was  presented,  it  created 
perhaps  a  horror.  The  first  lie,  or  oath,  or  theft,  or 
transgression  of  any  kind  pained  the  conscience,  and 
perhaps  brought  tears  to  the  eyes  ;  the  second,  howev- 
er, produced  still  less  impression,  and  so  on,  until  by- 
and-by  there  was  little  or  no  compunction  of  con- 
science. This  class  of  transgressors  is  aptly  described 
by  the  prophet  when  he  says  :  "  Woe  unto  them  that 
draw  iniquity  with  cords  of  vanity,  and  sin  as  it 
were  with  a  cart  rope  ;"  and  again,  by  the  poet,  when 
he  says  : 

"  Vice  is  a  monster  of  so  frightful  mien, 
As,  to  be  hated,  needs  but  to  be  seen ; 
Yet  seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face, 
We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace." 


216  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

We  need  only  allude  to  drunkenness,  cruelty,  profan- 
ity, theft,  and  other  kindred  vices,  of  which  these  are 
but  fair  representatives,  and  the  several  steps  by  which 
they  have  bee-i  reached  can  readily  be  imagined. 

But,  take  the  third  and  fourth  cases  alluded  to,  in 
which  the  outward  impressions  are  good,  and  are  re- 
sponded to,  in  the  one  case,  by  the  active  principle  of 
good,  but  repulsed,  in  the  other,  by  the  active  principle 
of  evil,  and  what  are  the  results?  Suppose  a  man  to 
meet,  for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  a  most  distressing 
object  of  charity,  who,  stretching  out  his  emaciated 
hands,  implores  help.  The  individual  thus  addressed 
feels  his  compassion  move  toward  the  sufferer,  and  he 
obeys  the  impression  from  without,  and  the  impulse 
from  within.  The  suffering  is  relieved,  and  both  the 
giver  and  the  receiver  rejoice  together.  Now,  in  this 
case  the  principle  of  benevolence  has  been  exercised  and 
strengthened ;  and,  as  a  natural  result,  the  next  object 
of  suffering  is  met  in  a  still  more  welcome  maimer, 
and  soon  liberality  becomes  a  fixed  principle ;  the  more 
a  person  gives,  the  more  delight  he  experiences  in  giving, 
and  his  beneficence  is  only  limited  by  his  means.  The 
same  is  true  of  good  impressions  from  any  other  quarter. 

But  suppose,  when  the  first  appeal  is  made  to  the 
individual,  that  he  closes  his  eyes  to  suffering  and  his 
hand  against  giving;  that  he  shuts  up  his  compassion 
and  refuses  to  listen  to  the  pleadings  of  mercy  from 
without,  or  to  respond  to  the  call  of  conscience  from 
within — what  will  be  the  result?  In  the  first  place, 
suffering  will  not  be  relieved ;  and  in  the  second,  his 
own  heart  will  be  hardened.  The  next  case  of  suffer- 
ing will  be  met  with  less  emotion,  and  so  on,  until 
finally  the  needy  will  be  repulsed  with  scorn  or  indif- 
ference ;  or  the  only  effect  will  be  to  make  the  miser 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  217 

clutch  his  gold  more  tightly,  and  to  steel  his  heart  more 
effectually  against  all  generous  impulses  ;  and  thus  it 
is  with  all  good  impressions,  from  whatever  quarter. 
As  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  same  outward  in- 
fluences that  have  a  tendency,  when  obeyed,  to  make 
a  benevolent  man,  will,  when  repelled,  have  a  tendency 
to  make  a  miser.  The  same  that  develop  the  Christian 
graces,  and  establish  a  man's  moral  principles,  if  not 
received  in  a  proper  spirit,  will  harden  him  against  im- 
pressions of  good,  and  confirm  him  in  iniquity  and 
crime. 

]S~ow  these  principles  have  a  direct  bearing  in  the 
government  and  education  of  children.  There  are 
four  cases,  which  may  be  briefly  recapitulated  thus : 
first,  the  impression  in  itself  may  be  evil  and  the  re- 
sult evil;  second,  the  impression  may  be  evil  and  the 
result  good ;  third,  the  impression  may  be  good  and 
the  result  good  ;  fourth,  the  impression  good  and  the 
result  bad;  and  all  of  the  influences  and  results  are,  to 
a  great  extent,  put  within  the  reach  of  parents  and 
teachers,  or  of  the  government.  Therefore,  let  the 
temptations  be  so  adjusted  that  the  power  that  is 
within  the  child  may  resist  them ;  and  let  the  positive 
good  from  without  be  so  presented  as  not  to  annoy  or 
harden  the  subject,  but  "to  produce  the  peaceable 
fruits  of  righteousness  in  them  that  are  exercised 
thereby." 

Section  2 — Government,  Reformative. — Thus  far 
the  objects  and  means  of  Government  have  been  con- 
sidered as  they  relate  to  society  in  nearly  a  normal 
condition :  or,  the  conservative  and  self-perpetuating 
objects  have  been  considered.  But  society  is  often  de- 
ranged, and  its  members  need  reforming.  There  are 
19 


218  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

offenses  and  offenders.  It  is  safe  to  conclude  this  of 
all  stages  and  forms  of  association  composed  of  fallible 
beings.  This  of  course  will  include  the  family  and  the 
school.  "  It  must  needs  be  that  offenses  come,"  and 
consequently  there  will  be  offenders,  in  this  corrupt 
state  of  things ;  and  perhaps  this  will  always  continue, 
so  long  as  society  is  composed  of  the  same  or  even  sim- 
ilar elements. 

Now,  government  holds  some  relation  to  these  of- 
fenses and  these  offenders.  It  can  not  avoid  them  so 
long  as  they  compose  a  part  of  the  body  politic;  nor 
can  it  look  with  indifference  upon  this  new  state  of 
things.  Indeed,  it  regards  offenders  with  a  peculiar 
interest.  The  mutual  claims  of  government,  and  of 
those  under  its  control,  when  they  depart  from  their 
integrity  or  violate  their  obligations,  it  shall  be  our 
present  business  to  investigate  in  connection  with  the 
administration  of  that  kind  of  control,  calculated  to 
produce  the  objects  heretofore  discussed. 

And  first,  we  remark,  since  government  is  com- 
pelled to  deal  with  culprits,  and  since  these,  in  many 
instances,  are  susceptible  of  reformation,  therefore  it 
should  be  reformative.  It  should  reach  down,  but  not 
in  a  vindictive  spirit,  to  those  of  its  subjects  that  have 
been  unfortunate,  and  bring  them  up,  if  possible,  and 
reinstate  them,  so  that  its  claims  upon  them  shall  be 
the  same  as  upon  those  who  have  not  fallen.  This 
function  of  government  is  manifestly  neglected,  both 
in  public  and  in  private  associations.  Those  who  have 
offended  have  too  often  been  looked  upon  more  as 
enemies  of  the  commonwealth,  lost  to  the  claims  of 
sympathy,  and  against  whom  the  government  hurls  its 
Dolts  of  vengeance,  than  as  subjects  entitled,  if  not  to 
equal  confidence,  at  least  to  its  pity  and  extra  atten- 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  219 

;ion.  Punishment  is  dealt  out  with  an  unsparing 
Sand,  too  often  with  no  other  ohject  in  view  than 
merely  to  gratify  a  selfish  motive,  or  at  most,  the  de- 
mands of  justice;  when,  in  fact,  the  culprit  as  a  mem- 
ber of  society,  and  society  itself,  have  as  great  demands 
upon  justice  as  justice  has  upon  its  victim;  and  these 
entirely  harmonize.  Justice  demands  the  satisfaction 
of  a  violated  law,  while  society  and  the  offender  him- 
self are  not  less  urgent  in  their  demands  for  the 
reformation  of  the  latter  at  the  hands  of  justice,  as  a 
.matter  of  safety  to  the  body  politic. 

The  means  by  which  offenders  may  be  reformed  will 
next  claim  attention.  First,  we  remark,  they  must  be 
convinced  of  wrong  as  an  initiatory  step.  There  can 
be  no  reformation  from  a  point  where  there  is  no  rec- 
ognition of  guilt.  The  culprit  must  first  feel  the 
weight,  the  nature,  the  tendency  of  the  offense,  before 
he  can  truly  take  a  step  toward  reformation.  The 
government  and  justice  owe  him  this  information. 
Hence  the  municipal  law  punishes  no  man  unheard, 
or  uninformed  as  to  the  nature  of  his  offense.  It 
labors  even  more  earnestly  to  convict  him  than  it  does 
to  punish  him.  In  this  it  proves  its  sincerity  for  his 
reformation.  In  this  it  takes  the  most  direct  course 
to  induce  repentance — the  first  step  of  reformation. 

Now  this  should  be  the  course  pursued  in  schools. 
JSTo  step  should  be  taken,  no  policy  adopted  toward 
offenders,  in  which  they  may  not  recognize  the  benev- 
olent intentions  of  government.  For  instance,  a  wrong 
has  been  committed;  authority  has  been  trampled 
upon;  the  integrity  of  the  body  politic  has  been 
wounded,  and  it  suffers  in  consequence.  The  culprit 
himself,  as  a  part  of  this  body,  is  a  principal  sufferer. 
His  reformation,  therefore,  is  demanded  by  every  claim 


220  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

of  every  claimant  in  that  body.  Now  agencies  must 
be  employed  for  restoration ;  and  it  is  clear,  that  if  the 
offender  be  in  the  path  of  the  agencies  thus  employed 
for  healing  the  breach,  or  settling  the  claim,  they  will 
operate  upon  him,  of  course.  And  if  these  agencies, 
which  have  the  double  object,  the  satisfaction  of  the 
law  and  his  reformation  in  view,  demand  his  punish- 
ment as  the  safest  and  most  direct  means  of  securing 
both  these  objects,  of  course  he  must  submit,  not  only 
as  a  matter  of  policy,  which  by  the  way  is  an  urgent 
one,  but  of  necessity,  arising  out  of  the  claims  of  jus- 
tice. This  punishment,  however,  should  have  nothing 
out  the  most  benevolent  designs  in  view,  and  should 
be  varied  to  suit  the  nature  of  the  cases. 

This  brings  us  to  the  most  peculiar  and  most  diffi- 
cult part  of  the  subject,  viz.,  the  kinds  of  punishment, 
and  the  mode  of  administering  it.  Without  attempt- 
ing to  discuss  the  merits  of  the  several  kinds,  we  might 
be  allowed  the  general  remark, that  for  ordinary  cases, 
or  where  the  powers  have  not  been  so  impaired,  or  are 
so  defective  in  their  natural  capacity,  as  to  be  beyond 
the  reach  of  restoration  from  natural  penalties,  the 
reformation  may  be  wrought,  and  the  claims  of  justice 
equally  satisfied  by  what  are  called  purely  moral 
means.  For  instance,  if  the  child  disobey,  he  should 
suffer  the  natural  consequences  of  such  disobedience, 
whatever  they  may  be,  so  far  at  least  as  they  would 
go  to  reform  him.  If  he  fail  to  get  a  lesson,  which 
indeed  would  be,  in  common  with  almost  all  offenses, 
a  species  of  disobedience,  the  natural  penalty  would 
be  either  the  loss  of  it,  or  the  additional  labor  and  in- 
convenience consequent  upon  such  a  course.  If  he 
lose  his  book  or  property,  he,  of  course,  ought  to 
suffer  the  loss  ;  so,  if  he  squander  his  time  in  idleness, 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  221 

or  deface  or  destroy  his  desk  or  clothing,  or  do  any 
tiling  of  this  nature,  he  should  be  made  to  feel  the 
loss  and  suffer  the  consequent  inconvenience  until  he 
can  realize  the  immediate  relations  of  cause  and  effect. 
Or,  if  he  encroach  upon  the  rights,  person  or  property 
of  another  in  any  way,  the  inconvenience  and  punish- 
ment that  his  treatment  would  cause  in  others  who  are 
subjected  to  them,  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  visited 
upon  himself. 

In  the  great  majority  of  these  and  kindred  offenses, 
in  addition  to  the  natural  penalties,  the  offender  lays 
himself  under  an  obligation  to  the  authorities  and 
"powers  that  be,"  similar,  in  many  respects,  to  that 
which  the  debtor  owes  the  creditor.  The  offender  be- 
comes amenable  to  the  offended  powers;  and  it  is  his 
business,  when  notified  of  the  same,  to  render  his 
account,  and  cancel  its  claims  as  soon  as  possible.  If, 
however,  after  the  lapse  of  a  reasonable  time,  he  fail 
to  discharge  this  obligation,  the  debt  will  increase; 
and  if  he  await  a  prosecution,  he  ought  surely  not  to 
complain,  if  he  have  to  pay  the  cost  of  such  a  proc- 
ess. A  good  plan,  therefore,  in  case  of  short-comings 
of  this  character,  is  to  notify  the  offender  of  his  in- 
debtedness and  of  his  obligations  to  discharge  such 
indebtedness ;  to  give  him  an  opportunity  to  seek  a 
reconciliation,  even  to  demand  this  at  his  hands.  This 
will  bring  him  in  such  a  relation  to  the  government 
that  it  can  treat  with  him  on  more  honorable  terms. 
This  will  throw  the  responsibility  where  it  belongs, 
and  will  relieve  the  teacher  from  the  disagreeable  task 
of  hunting  up  offenses,  or  evidences  against  them.  It 
will  also  be  humiliating  to  the  offender,  and  will  con- 
stitute no  small  share  of  his  punishment. 

And  superadded  to  all  of  these  forms  of  punish- 


222  THE    ART   OF    TEACHING. 

nient  of  a  purely  moral  nature,  which  should  he  va- 
ried to  suit  the  individual  cases,  is  the  loss,  on  the  part 
of  the  offender,  of  the  usual  privileges  of  the  school, 
until  satisfaction  *s  rendered,  and  a  reconciliation  ef- 
fected. This  course  may  be  taken  with  a  great  many. 
It  will  both  deepen  their  convictions,  and  hasten  their 
return.  It  will  become  effective  in  proportion  to  the 
strength  of  the  attachments,  and  the  agreeableness  of 
these  privileges.  But  above  all  and  more  than  all,  the 
loss  of  the  little  attentions,  the  extra  exercises,  the 
smiles  and  approbation  of  the  teacher  or  parent,  which 
will  be  severe  in  proportion  to  his  power  and  influence, 
may  be  a  keener  punishment  than  all  the  flogging 
that  could,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  be  admin- 
istered ;  and  certainly,  in  cases  of  this  description,  it 
is  more  in  accordance  with  sound  philosophy.  Even 
some  of  the  most  aggravated  offenses,  can  most  read- 
ily be  punished  and  corrected  in  this  manner;  for  its 
severity  on  a  sensitive  mind,  will  almost  always  be  in 
proportion  to  the  enormity  of  the  offense  committed. 
But  if  the  courtesy  of  self-reporting  on  the  part  of 
the  offender  is  withheld ;  and  if  these  offenses,  or  any 
others  are  habitual ;  if  the  complaint  is  a  deep-seated 
one ;  it  may  require  some  more  severe  remedy.  All 
cases  are  not  alike.  In  the  first  place  the  offenses 
themselves  are  diverse  both  in  motive  and  in  enormity; 
and  in  the  second  place  the  offenders  are  unlike  as  to 
age  and  susceptibility  of  reformation.  But  all  of- 
fenses are  evidences  of  disease,  either  chronic  or  acute, 
and  all  offenders  are  invalids  varying  in  degrees  of 
weakness  and  persistence,  according  to  the  nature, 
origin  and  standing  of  the  disorder  ;  and  it  is  no  more 
rational  to  conclude  that  the  same  kind  of  treatment 
or  punishment  will  reform  every  case,  than  that  the 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  223 

same  kind  of  medicine  will  cure  all  diseases.  It  is 
not,  however,  beyond  the  memory  of  some  of  the 
present  generation,  when  about  the  only  remedy  for 
the  prevailing  disorders  of  the  body,  was  bleeding 
and  purging.  But  this  species  of  barbarism  has  been 
supplanted  by  a  more  enlightened  policy  in  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine.  Would  that  a  similar  one  in  refer- 
ence to  the  treatment  of  mental  disorders  had  shared 
a  similar  fate ! 

The  two  cases  alluded  to  are  strikingly  analogous. 
For  one  patient,  it  might  be  necessary  to  amputate  a 
limb,  or  to  resort  to  severe  remedies,  to  reduce  the 
system  in  order  to  arrest  the  disease  ;  for  others  it 
would  only  be  necessary  to  counteract  the  influences 
producing  disorder,  or  to  aid  the  powers  to  free  them- 
selves from  the  burden,  and  the  recovery  is  equally 
certain.  So  in  relation  to  the  nature  and  office  of 
punishment  as  a  reformatory  measure.  For  one  it 
might  be  necessary  to  resort  to  severe  remedies,  to 
amputate  and  reduce;  for  others,  the  milder  means 
and  precautionary  measures  would  be  equally  effective. 

A  great  deal  of  late  has  been  said  about  the  kinds 
of  punishment,  and  the  mode  of  administering  it ; 
and  indeed  there  is  room  for  much  to  be  said.  Per- 
haps no  practice  in  connection  with  school  govern- 
ment has  been  subject  to  the  same  or  to  an  equal  amount 
of  abuse.  Corporeal  punishment  seems  to  be  the  feat- 
ure attracting  the  greatest  attention,  and  the  form, 
against  which,  the  chief  objections  are  urged;  and, 
as  it  is  usually  administered,  it  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  objectionable.  But  some,  looking  only  upon  the 
enormities  practiced,  have  not  been  sparing  in  their 
denunciations  against  the  whole  system.  Others 
scarcely  less  philosophical,  have  entirely  mistaken  the 


224  THE    ART   OF   TEACHING. 

spirit  and  mode  of  administration  in  which  its  effi- 
ciency lies.  Hence  they  have  taken  the  abuse,  to 
judge  by  it  the  legitimate  use.  This  is  manifestly 
unfair;  for  upon  the  same  principle,  scarcely  a 
single  practice  in  the  whole  process  of  education 
would  escape  condemnation.  Recitation  itself  would 
be  condemned  on  the  same  ground  ;  yet  who  would 
think  of  abandoning  it,  because  forsooth  some  bungler 
had  made  a  bad  use  of  it?  We  believe,  therefore, 
that  this  kind  of  punishment  has  its  legitimate  use ; 
and,  as  a  strictly  reformative  measure,  for  certain  cases, 
it  has  scarcely  an  equal,  and  surely  no  substitute.  It 
can  not  be  dispensed  with  in  the  present  state  of  so- 
ciety, and  in  no  state  surely,  so  long  as  there  are  gross 
offenders  to  be  reformed,  any  more  than  the  use  of 
medicine  can  be,  so  long  as  diseases  of  a  violent 
nature  exist. 

In  speaking  of  the  modes  of  corporeal  punishment, 
we  select  one,  viz.,  punishment  with  the  rod,  as  about 
the  only  kind  not  objectionable  pp-r  %e;  and  we  shall  en- 
deavor to  show  that  the  objections  arise  entirely  from 
its  abuse.  Indeed  its  use  has  been  grossly  perverted  ; 
and  instead  of  its  being  a  reformative  measure,  it  is 
rather  a  vindictive  one.  For  instance :  an  offense  is 
committed,  or  a  series  of  offenses,  whereby  the  teacher's 
anger  is  aroused,  or  his  patience  exhausted.  He  falls 
upon  the  offender  and  beats  him  unmercifully,  or  until 
he  thinks  (if  he  think  at  all  during  the  operation) 
that  he  has  given  about  enough  ;  or  until  his  own 
feelings  of  revenge  have  pretty  well  subsided,  when 
he  sends  him  to  his  seat  with  something  like  the  fol- 
lowing taunts  and  threats :  "  There  now  !  I  told  you 
if  you  did  not  behave  yourself,  you  would  catch  it ! 
Now  you  have  got  it !  Go   to  your  seat,  you  villain  \ 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  2^5 

and  if  you  ever  do  so  again,  I  will  give  you  ten  times 
as  much  more!"  And  he  does  go  to  his  seat;  but  is 
he  reformed  ?  No  more  than  the  tiger  is,  scourged 
within  his  prison  bars.  If  that  child  be  not  a  coward, 
or  a  Christian  (not  that  these  characters  are  the  same), 
he  goes  cursing  that  teacher  (?)  for  his  meanness. 
And  it  is  mean  !  It  is  cowardly  to  treat  a  boy  so  !  for, 
if  he  wanted  to  fight,  why  did  he  not  select  one  of  his 
own  size  and  strength,  and  not  vent  his  spleen  upon 
one  unable  to  defend  himself? 

Now  this  is  only  a  fair  representation  of  what  takes 
place  in  at  least  one  half  of  the  cases  of  whipping, 
as  it  is  commonly  practiced.  It  is  nothing  more,  so 
far  as  the  principle  is  concerned,  than  a  street  fight, 
with  this  difference,  perhaps,  in  favor  of  the  latter, 
that  the  combatants  in  the  last  case  are  usually  more 
equally  matched.  No  wonder  that  whipping  has  re- 
ceived a  bad  name  !  No  wonder  that  shortsighted 
philanthropists  have  condemned  it,  and  sought  to  re- 
move it. altogether ! 

There  are  other  modes  of  administering  this  kind 
of  punishment,  which  ought  to  be  noticed.  Suppose 
an  offense,  as  in  the  first  case.  Instead  of  consulting 
the  circumstances  and  the  nature  of  the  offender,  the 
punishment  is  administered,  so  many  strokes  for  so 
much  offense:  and  the  culprit  goes  to  his  seat,  relieved 
for  the  time  being; for  he  has  bought  an  indulgence  and 
paid  for  it.  He  has  paid  all  the  penalties  and  has  a 
clear  balance  in  his  favor,  for  the  next  half  dozen  of- 
fenses, at  least,  when  another  settlement  may  be  ex- 
pected. Now  there  is  no  reformation  here  either.  It 
is  only  a  bargain  and  sale  affair,  a  hardening  process, 
by  which,  I  doubt  not,  many  have  been  whipped  into 


22(5  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

penitentiaries,  or  perhaps  the  last  penalty  has,  or  will 
be  expiated  upon  the  scaffold. 

Again:  Some  children,  when  whipped,  have  the 
faculty  of  making  a  great  noise,  and  loud  professions 
of  reformation  ;  but  it  is  soon  forgotten  :  or  it  may  be, 
the  noise  is  only  for  effect,  by  which  the  teacher  is 
deceived ;  and  the  pupil  goes  to  his  seat,  congratu- 
lating himself  upon  his  fortunate  escape.  Others,  dif- 
ferently constituted,  and  perhaps  having  more  hon- 
esty and  principle,  are  in  danger  of  excesses  from  an 
opposite  direction  ;  and  others  again,  both  guilty  and 
innocent,  are  punished  in  less  objectionable  modes; 
and  yet  there  is  no  recognition  of  guilt,  no  repentance, 
no  reformation.  The  whole  object  seems  .to  be  too 
much  either  to  give  vent  to  angry  feelings,  to  pay  the 
penalty  of  the  law,  to  maintain  authority  by  force,  or 
to  seek  the  shortest  way  to  enforce  present  obedience, 
without  either  consulting  the  nature  of  offenses  and 
offenders,  or  the  demands  these  have  upon  justice  for 
reformation.  But  this  objectionable  use  of  punish- 
ment is  only  accidental ;  and  no  more  necessary  than 
war  or  murder  is  a  necessity  arising  from  the  exist- 
ence of  firearms, — or  than  cruelty  and  oppression  are 
necessary,  from  the  existence  of  human  power  and 
skill. 

The  questions  now  arise,  can  punishment  with  the 
rod  be  free  from  these  objections  ?  Is  there  not  some- 
thing connected  with  it,  necessarily  calculated  to 
arouse  the  evil  passions?  We  answer  most  unhesi- 
tatingly, No,  not  necessarily ;  and  will  hereafter  ex- 
plain. But,  does  it  not  degrade  both  teacher  and 
pupil  ?  Does  there  not  a  great  deal  of  evil  grow  out 
of  it?     And  in  view  of  this  fact,  ought  it  not  to  be 


SCHOOL     GOVERNMENT.  227 

abandoned  altogether?  To  the  last  question,  we  re- 
ply as  to  the  first;  but  to  the  two  preceding  it,  we  as 
unhesitatingly  answer,  Yes,  when  the  punishment  is 
accompanied  by  ai^  of  the  evil  passions ;  and  here 
is  the  p^ice  where  distinctions  and  discriminations 
should  be  made.  When  any  anger  exists  in  the  teach- 
er's heart,  while  administering  punishment,  it  will 
most  likely  arouse  anger  in  the  pupil's  heart ;  if  re- 
venge, revenge;  if  hatred,  hatred,  or  some  corres- 
ponding feelings;  for  like  begets  its  like  every -where. 
But  observe :  none  of  these  passions  should  have  any 
thing  to  do  with  teaching,  much  less  with  whipping,  one 
of  the  most  difficult  duties  the  teacher  is  ever  called 
upon  to  perform.  Those  who  oppose  the  use  of  the 
rod  altogether,  seem  to  overlook  its  legitimate  use  and 
predicate  their  objections  entirely  upon  its  abuse. 
Their  arguments  are  therefore  all  admitted;  but  they 
do  not  tend  to  establish  any  objection  against  its 
proper  use.  They  seem  to  think  that  before  a.  person 
can  whip,  he  must  first  have  his  feelings  wrought  up  to 
what  we  may  denominate  the  "whipping  point;"  and 
that  angry  passions  must  necessarily  be  aroused  in  the 
pupil.  Now  this  iast  may  be  the  result  in  many  cases ; 
but  mark,  these  passions  are  to  be  subdued.  It  is 
similar  in  effect  to  the  removal  of  a  cancer  or  a  tumor 
from  the  body.  It  may  cause  present  pain,  and  all  its 
angry  humors  may  be  goaded  to  madness  ;  but  the  op- 
eration goes  on  nevertheless,  until  the  offending  por- 
tion is  removed,  when  the  parts  may  be  healed.  So 
with  these  passions.  They  may  rage  for  a  time  like 
a  tempest,  but  the  opposite  feelings  accompanied 
by  the  proper  use  of  means,  will  generally  conquer 
them. 

But  it  may  be  further  asked,  "  How  can  the  teacher 


228  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

manifest  these  amiable  feelings  on  all  occasions,  and 
especially  upon  this  most  trying  one  ?  "  My  friends,  is 
there  any  occasion  for  the  exercise  of  unamiable  feel- 
ings, under  any  circumstances?  Jf  so,  then  it  is  barely 
possible  that  they  may,  with  propriety,  be  manifested 
here.  "But  how  can  the  teacher  love  those  who  are 
unlovely?"  He  may  not  love  them  with  the  love  of 
approbation,  or  even  of  complacency ;  but  with  the 
love  of  pity  and  tender  sympathy  for  their  suffering. 
Again  :  how  can  he  smite  the  object  of  his  love  and 
pity,  or  hold  back  his  hand  from  vengeance,  when 
provoked?  Ah!  that's  the  point!  Here  is  where 
human  nature  is  weak.  Here  is  where  passion  and 
impulse  get  the  better  of  judgment  and  reason  ;  and 
no  wonder  that  evil  rather  than  good  is  the  result.  It 
is  always  so. 

The  question  again  recurs:  Is  it  possible  for  the 
teacher  to  whip  without  first  feeling  these  angry  or 
revengeful  passions,  or  arousing  them  by  the  opera- 
tion ?  We  answer  by  asking,  Can  he  not  strike  a  blow 
upon  his  desk  without  anger?  Then  why  not  upon 
the  scholar,  if  he  have  a  great  and  good  object  in 
view?  Can  he  not  smite  with  the  same  candor  and 
earnest  desire  to  do  good  that  actuated  him  while 
reading  the  morning  lesson  from  the  Bible?  Can  he 
not  inflict  pain,  and  still  pray?  Can  he  not  punish 
and  pity  at  the  same  time?  Can  he  not  love,  and 
lament  the  necessity  that  calls  for  suffering?  If  he 
can  not,  then  he  ought  not  to  teach,  much  less  to  punish. 
He  should  never  lay  hands  upon  that  fearful  instru- 
ment, the  rod  of  correction,  until  he  can  first  lay  hands 
upon  his  heart,  and  say,  "  0  God,  I  do  this  to  glorify 
thy  name."  "I  do  it  to  reform  this  pupil,  and  to 
bring  him  nearer  to  thee."    Let  him  do  this,  and  there 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  229 

will  be  little  danger  of  excess.  Let  him  do  it,  and 
half  the  punishment  will  accomplish  the  desired  end. 

This  is  asking  no  more  of  the  teacher  than  we  re- 
quire of  the  surgeon.  But  suppose  the  latter  should 
hesitate  and  say,  "  I  can  not  perform  this  operation  now, 
because  I  do  not  feel  mad  enough  ; "  or  stop  in  the 
middle  of  the  operation,  because,  forsooth,  the  patient 
cries.  We  would  call  him  fool  or  faint-heart.  Sup- 
pose, on  the  other  hand,  at  every  stroke  he  should 
grow  more  and  more  angry  and  vindictive,  and  should 
use  threats  and  taunts,  instead  of  words  of  comfort 
and  encouragement ;  or  suppose  he  should  leave  the 
patient  bleeding  and  perishing  from  the  wounds  he 
had  inflicted,  we  would  call  him  a  savage  or  a  brute. 
And  yet,  teachers  who  object  to  the  use  of  the  rod, 
because  some  have  abused  it,  must  perceive  that  their 
arguments  against  corporeal  punishment  are  subject  to 
similar  criticism;  and  that  the  same  conclusions  can 
be  drawn  from  their  objections  to  the  rod,  as  would 
here  be  urged  against  surgery. 

Again,  it  may  be  asked,  how  can  physical  punish- 
ment be  made  a  reformative  instrument?  How  can 
bodily  suffering  affect  the  mind  and  heart  for  good  ? 
We  answer,  Does  it  not?  Is  not  bodily  affliction  one 
of  the  strongest  instruments  of  correction  and  refor- 
mation, that  is  used  by  the  Almighty  himself?  All 
philosophy  and  experience,  as  well  as  human  and 
Divine  law,  recognize  this,  though  an  extreme,  yet 
an  effective  agent  in  carrying  out  the  ends  of  govern- 
ment. 

There  are  at  least  three  classes  of  appeals  that  may 
be  made  use  of  for  correcting  the  irregularities  of  our 
nature,  and  reforming  offenders:  First,  the  purely 
moral ;    Second,  the   intellectual   and   moral ;    Third, 


230  THE   ART    OF    TEACHING. 

these  two  combined  and  aided  by  physical  force.  The 
efficiency  of  these  appeals  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the 
number  of  faculties  addressed,  and  the  potency  of  the 
means  employed.  The  two  classes  acting  in  concert, 
are  stronger  than  one;  and  all  three,  for  extreme  cases, 
than  either  the  one  or  two.  The  first  two  have  been  de- 
ecribed  briefly.  We  propose  now  to  speak  of  all  three 
of  these  forces  combined,  as  a  governmental  measure, 
keeping  in  view,  all  the  time,  the  reformation  of 
offenders,  the  prevention  of  crime  by  others,  and  the 
vindication  of  authority.  In  investigating  this  sub- 
ject, however,  it  will  not  do  to  be  guided  by  any  pre- 
conceived opinions  or  practices.  The  principles,  as 
they  reveal  themselves,  will  urge  their  own  conclu- 
sions, which  the  student  will  not  fail  to  recognize. 

1.  We  should  not  separate  these  forces  or  appeals. 
In  all  such  cases  as  may  demand  them,  they  should 
act  as  a  unit.  It  may  not  be  necessary,  however,  to 
employ  all  of  them  in  the  same  case  as  has  been  in- 
timated. They  should  be  regulated  according  to  the 
nature  and  persistence  of  the  offenses.  But  the  mo- 
ment the  higher  forces  or  appeals  cease  to  act,  just  so 
soon,  and  in  the  same  ratio,  is  the  effective  force 
weakened.  This  is  necessarily  so.  .  It  is  just  like  a 
human  being  endowed  with  all  his  powers  in  full  play. 
His  mind  and  moral  force  constitute  his  chief  means 
of  effective  strength.  Superadded  to  these  he  has 
physical  force.  There  are  some  duties  in  life  requiring 
little  or  no  physical  strength.  Again,  a  person  may 
be  deprived  of  the  power  to  act  physically,  and  yet 
the  mental  force  be  unimpaired.  But  not  so  with  the 
loss  of  mind.  That  gone,  and  all  is  gone.  On  extra 
occasions,  therefore,  and  indeed,  to  a  great  extent,  in 
the  majority  of  instances  in  life,  the  mind  calls  to  its 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  231 

aid  the  physical  man  ;  and  when  all  of  these  agents 
put  forth  their  greatest  strength,  in  harmony  and  in 
a  good  cause,  it  is  then  that  man  exhibits  one  of 
the  sublimest  spectacles  in  the  moral  universe.  Just 
so  in  relation  to  these  appeals,  and  their  mode  of  ap- 
plication. The  purely  moral  and  intellectual,  as  they 
have  been  described,  are  the  great  motors  and  regula- 
tors, by  which  the  wheels  of  government  are  to  be 
moved.  They  will  be  adequate  to  the  demand  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases ;  but  when  a  disorder  arises 
that  demands  additional  force,  then  these  moral  forces 
may  call  to  their  aid — mark,  not  as  principal  agents, 
but  merely  as  auxiliary — the  physical  powers;  and 
when  the  moral  feelings  of  the  offender  can  not  be 
reached  by  the  mere  moral  force,  as  implied  in  the 
above,  then  according  to  the  same  reasoning,  these 
feelings  can  more  easily  be  moved  by  the  combined 
action  of  the  two,  or  of  the  three.  But  there  must 
be  no  separation.  The  moral  and  intellectual  powers 
must  lead.  They  should  act  even  with  additional 
energy,  when  they  call  to  their  assistance  the  other 
forces. 

The  chief  reason  why  whipping  in  school  and  every 
where  else,  is  productive  of  so  much  mischief,  is  be- 
cause when  the  teacher  or  parent  takes  up  the  rod,  he 
lays  down  common-sense,  self-control,  judgment  and 
his  moral  powers.  He  is  thus  shorn  of  his  chief 
strength  ;  and  what  other  results  can  we  reasonably 
expect  than  those  complained  of?  It  is  not  an  un- 
common thing  to  hear  teachers  talk  much  about 
moral  suasion  as  antagonistic  to  physical  force,  and 
as  if  it  could  not  be  used  iu  connection  with  other 
means.  The  very  strongest  moral  suasion  can  be  ex- 
erted in  connection  with  physical  force  and  physical 


232  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

suffering.  The  two  are  by  no  means  incompatible. 
If  they  we-re,  then  no  moral  effect  could  be  produced 
by  physical  forces,  or  vice  versa.  They  harmonize  in 
every  particular  when  properly  used.  There  is. there- 
fore, as  much  moral  suasion  in  a  switch,  judiciously 
applied,  as  in  a  sermon  preached  from  the  housetops  ; 
and  for  its  specific  purposes,  it  may  be  doubly  ef- 
fective. 

Now,  the  whole  matter  is  reduced  simply  to  this : 
one  human  being  may  operate  upon  another  for  his 
good.  The  latter,  of  course,  is  susceptible  to  a  great- 
er or  less  degree.  If  his  moral  sensibility  is  easily 
affected,  then  the  moral  force  may  produce  the  result. 
In  case  the  sensibilities  have  become  somewhat  blun- 
ted, or  hard  to  operate  upon,  then  the  moral  power 
may  call  to  its  aid  the  intellectual  forces  in  the  form 
of  superior  judgment  and  skill  in  management,  which 
are  from  necessity  variously  employed  throughout. 
But  if  these  fail,  as  fail  they  must,  if  the  resistance  to 
be  overcome  is  greater  than  the  force  employed  to 
move  it ;  if  the  avenues  leading  to  the  affections  and 
will  of  the  child  are  all  closed,  and  no  impressions 
can  be  made  through  them  ;  these  appeals  must  neces- 
sarily fail.  But  still  there  is  one  more  resort  left,  the 
most  powerful  in  all  respects  for  the  purposes  in  hand, 
the  united  force  of  man's  moral,  intellectual  and  phys- 
ical powers,  a  concentration  and  harmonious  action 
of  all  his  energies  to  produce  a  given  result,  viz.,  the 
reformation  of  offenders  and  the  vindication  of  the 
demands  of  justice.  And  on  the  part  of  the  offender 
the  operation  of  these  forces  are  equally  philosophical. 
If,  as  in  the  case  supposed,  the  moral  and  intellectual 
susceptibilities,  the  avenues  to  the  heart  and  mind  are 
closed  to  whatever  forces  the  teacher  has  at  command, 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  28t5 

there  is  yet  or?e  more  chance,  provided  the  nervous 
sensibility  is  complete.  There  is  fortunately  and 
designedly  a  close  connection  between  the  bodily  sen- 
sibilities, and  the  mental  and  moral.  The  intellect,  the 
sensibility  and  the  will  are  all  more  or  less  affected  by 
any  suffering  that  may  be  inflicted  upon  the  nervous 
sensibility ;  and  if,  when  the  suffering  is  inflicted, 
there  is  a  clear  apprehension  on  the  part  of  the  suffer- 
er, as  to  its  intent,  and  if  it  be  administered  in  a 
proper  spirit  and  in  a  proper  quantity,  it  follows,  from 
the  conclusions  heretofore  reached,  that  unless  the 
subject  of  such  punishment  is  beyond  the  reach  of 
reformation,  these  means  may  and  will  reclaim  him. 
This  brings  us  to  consider  the  particular  mode  of' 
applying  the  punishment,  and  the  extent.  This  is  an 
important  item,  one  which  may  decide  the  whole  thing 
for  good  or  ill.  We  desire,  therefore,  to  be  explicit 
upon  this  point,  for  it  is  a  mostdifticult  one, — more  so 
than  either  study  or  recitation  ;  and,  as  in  those  duties 
there  is  both  a  science  and  an  art,  so  in  this.  The 
first  we  have  briefly  sketched.  The  second  involves 
the  particular  questions,  w7here,  or  upon  what  part  of 
the  body  ?  under  what  circumstances  ?  with  what  ? 
and  lf6w  the  strokes  should  be  applied  ?  We  answer, 
in  reference  to  the  first,  that  upon  the  back,  shoulders 
and  lower  extremities,  since  there  is  less  danger  of  sus- 
taining injury  from  the  infliction  of  severe  blows  upon 
those  parts  ;  but  never  upon  the  hands,  head  or  face, 
or  any  other  place  where  it  would  injure  the  person,  or 
offer  any  indignities.  The  clothing  upon  those  parts 
should  not  be  so  abundant  as  to  demand  heavy  blows, 
or  injury  might  result  from  that  quarter.  Hence  por- 
tions of  it  might  be  removed,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, and  its  thickness  tested  before  the  operation 
20 


2^4  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

commences.  This  will  also  serve  to  convince  the  of- 
fender that  you  are  really  laboring  for  his  benefit.  The 
teacher  should  know  and  fully  appreciate  the  nature 
of  the  duty  in  which  he  is  about  to  engage ;  hence 
great  caution  should  be  exercised  in  the  beginning. 

To  the  second  question,  viz.,  "Under  what  circum- 
stances, whether  in  public  or  in  private,"  we  answer, 
that  when  the  vice  is  an  individual  or  private  one,  and 
when  a  simple  reformation  from  such  vice  is  the  main 
object,  then  a  private  punishment  will  be  most  effect- 
ive; since  the  child  will  have  less  to  contend  with  in 
this  fearful  struggle  of  passion  with  the  moral  powers  : 
the  opposing  forces  of  an  external  character  will  be 
measurably  removed,  and  he  will  more  readily  yield. 
Bat  where  the  example  is  necessary,  or  where  the  of- 
fense has  been  mainly  of  a  public  character,  or  where 
the  breach  of  the  law  is  greater  than  the  breach  in  the 
individual — both  of  which  should  be  healed — or  where 
the  claims  of  justice  are  paramount  to  those  of  ref- 
ormation, or  where  a  greater  good  can  be  effected 
both  with  the  individual  and  the  body  politic, — under 
such  and  similar  circumstances,  a  public  chastisement 
may  be  inflicted,  keeping  the  same  objects  in  view  as 
heretofore  described.  I  can  also  conceive  of  cases  in 
which  the  parties  alone  concerned,  i.  e.,  the  injuring 
and  injured,  should  be  present;  but  these  cases  are 
rare. 

With  reference  to  the  third,  we  answer,  the  instru- 
ment should  be  a  switch.  Not  a  pole,  nor  a  club,  nor 
a  paddle,  but  a  light  switch :  one  with  which  you 
would  not  be  likely  to  injure  the  muscle  or  bone.  The 
chastisement  should  be  confined  to  the  surface.  There 
perhaps  is  not  a  case  within  the  reach  of  reformation 
so  hardened  as  not  to  be  reached  without  going  below 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  235 

the  surface.  A  ferule  is  a  bad  instrument  of  punish- 
ment, since  there  is  great  danger  of  bruising  the  hand 
or  the  parts  where  it  is  applied ;  and  this  is  true  of  al- 
most every  other  instrument  except  the  rod,  which  is 
the  simplest,  cheapest,  safest,  most  convenient,  and  the 
best  every  way. 

The  fourth  question,  "How?"  would  involve  the 
irequency,  severity,  and  number  of  blows.  All  these 
points  should  be  understood  by  the  teacher.  He 
should  study  them  just  as  carefully  and  accurately  as 
he  does  his  lessons  and  propositions.  Indeed,  a  mis- 
take here  is  more  disastrous  than  any  that  might  be 
committed  in  arithmetic  or  grammar.  We  remark, 
therefore,  as  to  frequency,  that  the  blows  should  not  be 
repeated  oftener  than  about  once  in  a  half  minute ;  and 
for  some  purposes  the  intervals  might  even  be  pro- 
longed beyond  this  time  :  first,  because  the  child  wants 
time  for  reflection  between  the  strokes ;  secondly,  he 
wants  time  to  reap  all  the  benefit  of  one  before  another 
is  given.  In  this  way,  about  one  tenth  the  number  of 
strokes  will  suffice,  since  every  one  expends  all  its 
force  before  another  is  given  ;  one  is  not  lost  or  par- 
alyzed in  the  pain  of  another;  thirdly,  because  there  is 
less  danger  of  arousing  the  passions  of  either  teacher 
or  pupil.  The  former  shows  that  he  governs  himself, 
and  this  of  itself  removes  more  than  one-half  of  the 
indignity  from  the  practice.  Let  him  strike  half-min- 
ute or  minute  strokes,  and  he  will  feel  no  anger,  but 
rather  pity  and  love ;  fourthly,  because  he  then  can  wit- 
ness and  measure  the  extent  of  suffering,  and  mark  its 
effects ;  fifthly,  because  it  offers  time  for  admonition  and 
expostulation,  which  will  frequently  be  necessary,  and 
will  do  as  much  or  more  good  than  the  bodily  pain, 


236  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

It  will  be  mingling  the  moral  and  the  physical  forces 
together  in  due  proportions. 

There  is  a  very  remarkable  incident  recorded  of  an 
English  horseman,  which  is  to  the  point  here.  A  cer- 
tain nobleman  came  in  possession  of  a  remarkably  fine 
horse;  but  unfortunately  he  possessed  one  bad  habit 
that  rendered  him  almost  useless.  He  would  stop 
while  under  the  saddle,  and  no  whipping  or  coaxing, 
or  driving,  would  induce  him  to  move.  After  every 
expedient  seemed  to  be  exhausted  in  efforts  to  conquer 
him,  a  celebrated  horseman  offered  his  services  and 
was  accepted.  The  animal  was  suitably  caparisoned 
and  brought  out  for  trial.  The  cavalier  approached 
him  with  an  air  of  confidence  and  indifference,  paying 
little  or  no  attention  to  his  eccentricities.  He  finally 
mounted  him,  when  the  horse  started  off  a  few  paces, 
but  soon  stopped  short,  as  was  his  custom.  Without 
manifesting  any  unusual  concern,  the  rider  gave  him 
the  usual  token  to  move  forward.  But  no ;  he  confi- 
dently affirmed  (in  his  way)  that  he  would  not.  The 
man,  after  giving  him  time  to  reflect  a  little  upon  his 
conduct,  slowly,  but  deliberately  and  determinately 
descended  from  the  saddle,  and,  stepping  to  his  head, 
took  a  firm  and  decided  hold  upon  the  bridle;  and 
after  the  necessary  adjustment  he  gave  him  one  severe 
blow  with  a  weapon  prepared  for  the  occasion.  He 
ceased.  The  horse  was  chafed  and  angered,  no  doubt; 
but,  to  his  disappointment,  the  man  did  not  repeat  the . 
blow.  He  expected  a  shower  of  them,  mingled  with 
curses,  doubtless,  or  that  he  was  about  to  be  flogged  as 
usual,  and  consequently  had  prepared  himself  to  re- 
sist it.  But  the  horseman  leisurely  resumed  his  seat 
in  the  saddle,  and  requested  him  to  go,  as  before;  but 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  237 

no,  he  would  scarcely  move.  He  again  descended,  and 
repeated  the  blow  with  additional  force  and  coolness 
The  horse  was  astonished  and  confounded  at  such 
strange  and  philosophic  treatment;  and  began  to  show 
evident  signs  of  changing  his  policy.  The  man  gave 
him  ample  time  to  determine  upon  his  course,  when 
he  again  placed  himself  in  the  saddle,  and  gave  him 
the  sign  for  going  forward.  There  was  evident  hesi- 
tation and  trepidation,  which  showed  that  the  point 
was  nearly  won.  He  was  evidently  unprepared  to 
resist  such  treatment,  and  his  inclinations  were  bal- 
ancing as  it  were  between  two  points.  This  was  the 
time  to  take  advantage  of  the  indecision  and  turn  the 
scale — to  give  the  finishing  stroke.  The  horseman 
slowly  descended  the  third  time ;  and  with  an  intre- 
pidity and  coolness  that  entirely  outwitted  the  animal, 
he  gave  him  such  a  stunning  blow  that  it  made  every 
nerve  tingle  and  every  muscle  start.  The  horse  fairly 
leaped  from  the  ground.  His  anger  and  stubbornness 
were  all  gone;  and  no  sooner  had  he  an  opportunity, 
than  he  manifested  the  most  entire  obedience  and  will- 
ingness to  go  when  and  wherever  his  master  desired 
him.  He  was  thoroughly  and  completely  conquered 
with  those  three  philosophic  blows;  and  it  is  related 
that  he  never  returned  to  his  old  practices.* 

Now  what  conquered  him,  the  blows,  or  the  good 
sense?  Doubtless,  both;  but  the  blows  never  would 
have  accomplished  it  without  the  good  sense,  nor  the 
good  sense  without  the  blows.  I  suppose  the  horse 
had  been  whipped  ten  times  more  severely,  and  per- 
haps a  hundred  times  as  much,  many  times  before 

♦The  above  is  related  from  memory,  and  may  not  correspond  in  all 
thft  minutiae  of  the  incident,  as  recorded  in  the  account,  but  the  main 
features  are  about  the  same. 


238  THE    ART    OF    TEACHING. 

but  all  to  no  purpose,  simply  because  it  had  not  been 
administered  in  a  proper  manner:  and  I  venture  to 
say,  that  nearly  all  the  very  hardest  cases  in  our 
schools,  if  treated  in  as  sensible  a  manner,  might  be 
reformed  by  one  haif  the  punishment  endured  by  this 
horse.  This  is  but  a  single  case,  it  is  true;  but  we 
have  others  on  record,  both  of  men  and  horses,  equally 
remarkable;  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  secret 
of  success  attending  the  remarkable  feats  of  subduing 
wild  and  unruly  horses  and  other  animals  by  the  re- 
nowned Rarey,  lies  in  the  good  sense  and  severe  mild- 
ness (if  we  may  be  allowed  that  expression)  of  the 
treatment. 

The  severity  of  the  blows  must  be  regulated  entirely 
by  the  temperament  of  the  child,  the  deep-seatedness 
of  the  disease,  and  the  objects  to  be  accomplished ; 
which  last  should  be  the  entire  reformation  of  the 
offender.  In  most  cases  where  whipping  becomes 
necessary,  the  blows  should  produce  acute  pain,  for 
the  moment.  They  should  not  be  trifling  nor  trifled 
with,  by  any  means;  and  they  should  rather  increase 
than  diminish  in  severity,  until  the  turning  point  is 
reached. 

The  time  of  one  operation  should  perhaps  not  be 
prolonged  beyond  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  (not  all  con- 
sumed, however,  in  administering  blows),  at  one  time, 
but  may  be  resumed  from  day  to  day,  until  the  re- 
formation point  is  reached.  It  will  be  found,  however, 
that  three  or  four  strokes,  or  a  half-dozen  at  most,  thus 
delivered,  will  usually  produce  the  required  results; 
simply  because  reason,  judgment,  good  sense,  sym- 
pathy, pity,  love,  suffering,  justice,  mercy,  tears  and 
prayers,  instead  of  angry  curses  and  vindictive  rage, 
are  all  combined ;  and  it  must  be  a  desperate  case  in- 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  239 

deed  that  can  resist  all  of  these.  Now  let  us  compare 
the  brutal  beating,  and  trifling  mismanagement,  and 
retaliating  process  described  in  another  place  with  this, 
and  decide  which  is  preferable,  which  will  be  most 
likely  to  produce  the  reformation  ?  Or,  should  we  pre- 
fer the  coaxing  and  hiring  process,  and  the  covering- 
up  of  the  corruptions  of  the  heart,  to  good  sound 
healthy  punishment  and  reformation? 

Now  understand :  if  we  can  rule  by  love,  we  should 
do  so  by  all  means.  But  if  that  is  not  strong  enough, 
we  should  strengthen  it  by  other  forces.  We  should 
bring  to  our  aid  every  earthly  device  of  an  intellectual 
nature,  not  inconsistent  with  moral  force;  but  if  these 
all  fail,  we  are  inexcusable  if  we  do  not  call  to  our 
aid  whatever  other  forces  God  has  placed  within  our 
reach.  Remember,  we  have  the  destiny  of  immortal 
beings  placed,  to  a  great  extent,  in  our  hands.  It  is 
not  for  us  therefore  to  consult  our  own  ease  or  con- 
venience, or  to  be  influenced  either  by  prejudice  or 
preconceived  notions  with  regard  to  punishment.  We 
must  do  right,  or  God  will  judge  us.  Justice  will  meet 
us,  and  perhaps  ruined  souls  that  we  might  have 
6aved,  will  haunt  us,  for  not  doing  our  duty.  We 
should  therefore  examine  the  subject  carefully,  and 
not  be  led  astray  by  false  philosophy  or  shallow- 
brained   philanthropy. 

Section  3 — Government,  Protective. — We  will  now 
suppose  the  offender  conquered,  subdued,  reformed. 
His  willfulness  has  yielded,  and  his  wieked  purposes 
are  abandoned.  His  anger  ceases,  and  he  submits 
willingly,  cheerfully,  lovingly.  What  now  is  the  duty 
of  government  toward  him?  Will  it  answer  to  turn 
him  loose  without  protection,  as  one  who  has  simply 


240  THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

paid  a  penalty  and  is  free  from  further  obligation  ;  or 
to  say  to  him,  "There,  now  take  care  of  yourself;  there 
is  1.0  further  danger?"  Will  it  accomplish  the  ends 
of  government  to  abandon  him  thus  and  expose  him 
to  all  the  temptations  that  caused  him  to  fall  in  the 
first  place?  I  know  our  State  governments  do  this 
in  too  many  instances.  Convicts  are  discharged  from 
prison  without  a  single  safeguard  ;  but  they  are  rather 
weakened,  disgraced,  destitute,  demoralized,  and  yet 
exposed  to  all  the  temptations  of  former  crime.  But 
what  does  the  sequel  show  ?  How  many  recommit- 
ments !  How  few  really  reform,  and  how  few  of  that 
number  stay  reformed  under  these  circumstances  f 
But  this  is  but  too  sad  a  commentary  upon  the  weak- 
ness of  human  law,  but  still  more  perhaps  upon  the 
inefficiency  of  our  law-making  powers. 

In  all  rightly  constituted  governments,  the  offender, 
after  suffering  the  penalty  due  to  his  crime,  if  he  be 
not  entirely  cast  oft",  and  if  he  be  not  beyond  the 
reach  of  reformation,  is  supposed  to  be  convalescent. 
If  he  is  not,  justice  has  not  done  its  whole  duty. 
Now  what  is  the  true  relation  the  government  sus- 
tains toward  him  ?  He  is  supposed  to  be  weak  and 
powerless,  or  at  least,  entirely  subject  to  the  influ- 
ences which  have  conquered  him.  This  may  have 
been  the  work  of  a  day,  a  month,  an  hour,  or  a  year. 
It  may  have  been  accomplished  by  moral,  intellectual 
or  physical  means,  or  all  combined :  still  these  condi- 
tions and  influences  exist  always  in  the  same  ratio. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  casting  him  out  to  fall  again,  or 
of  withholding  its  supporting  influence  from  him,  it 
takes  him  up  in  its  arms  of  sympathy,  and  only  ex- 
poses him  as  his  powers  are  able  to  eudure  exposure. 
He  now  sustains  a  relation  to  government  similar  to 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  241 

that  which  a  new  subject  experiences.  lie  needs  pro- 
tection, instruction,  education,  encouragement,  sym- 
pathy and  watchfulness.  This  want  should  be  the 
special  care  of  the  government,  and  solicitude  of  the 
teacher.  If  there  is  one  object  in  all  the  school  that 
deserves  more  special  attention  than  any  other,  it  is 
that  poor  unfortunate  who  has  fallen,  and  now  lies,  as 
it  were,  bleeding  at  the  feet  of  mercy,  flung  there  by 
the  hand  of  justice.  Justice  has  had  its  demand ;  and, 
in  executing  its  claims,  it  has  wrought  the  necessary 
repentance,  and  brought  the  offender  within  the  reach 
of  mercy.  Therefore  let  the  government  that  smote 
him  down,  lift  him  up.  Let  it  reinstate  him  in  its 
favor  and  fellowship,  and  grant  him  all  the  immuni- 
ties, claimed  and  enjoyed  by  other  subjects. 

Article  2— Qualifications  and  Requisites. 

We  have  thus  far  considered  government  with  ref- 
erence to  its  conservative,  reformative  and  protective 
characteristics,  chiefly  as  they  relate  to  the  school.  In 
doing  this,  it  became  necessary  to  make  frequent  al- 
lusions to  the  qualifications  and  requisites  of  the  gov- 
erning power,  and  also  to  the  mode  of  administering 
it.  This  was  contemplated  in  the  beginning.  It  only 
becomes  necessary  now  to  revert  briefly  to  those 
points  for  the  purpose  of  showing  their  connection 
and  completing  a  list  of  topics  in  a  uniform  order. 

Section  1 — Legislative  Talent. — In  order  to  carry 
forward  the  objects  of  government,  legislative  talent 
is  necessary.  Laws  are  to  be  enacted,  and  a  general 
provision  established  for  regulating  and  running  the 
machinery.  The  teacher  does  not  usually  find  these 
provisions  at  hand,  any  further  than  the  general*  prin- 


242  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

ciples  and  common  usage  afford  them.  From  these, 
and  from  his  own  judgment  and  knowledge  of  men 
and  things,  he  must  manufacture  or  frame  a  code  to 
guide  him  in  the  management  of  his  internal  affairs. 
He  therefore  discharges  the  functions  of  a  legislator 
'to  all  intents  and  purposes.  In  this  capacity,  no 
knowledge  will  be  more  valuable  to  him  than  self- 
knowledge,  or  that  which  gives  an  insight  into  human 
nature  and  the  motives  and  modes  of  human  action. 
With  these  commodities,  he  is  expected  to  operate. 
These  forces  he  must  provide  for  and  control.  The 
more  familiar,  therefore,  he  becomes  with  human  na- 
ture in  all  its  phases  and  aspects,  the  better. 

He  should  possess  shrewdness,  foresight,  'penetration, 
that  he  may  be  able  to  anticipate  and  provide  for  the 
emergencies  and  difficulties  which  must  necessarily 
arise  in  a  perverted  state  of  society.  These  are  talents 
that  characterize  all  good  legislators.  They  might  be 
embodied  in  that  excellent  quality  spoken  of  by  the 
wise  man  when  he  says :  "  A  prudent  man  foreseeth 
the  evil  and  hideth  himself,"  etc.  These  qualities, 
joined  with  deliberation,  are  the  opposites  of  precipi- 
tancy and  rashness  in  the  enactment  or  repeal  of 
laws,  the  inauguration  of  a  new  policy,  or  a  change  in 
the  general  management.  In  all  legislative  proceed- 
ings, there  is  no  quality  more  necessary,  or  that  will 
add  more  weight  to  such  proceedings,  than  a  due  exer- 
cise of  caution  and  deliberation.  There  is  constant 
danger  of  conflict  from  the  various  interests  to  be  rep- 
resented and  consulted.  Therefore,  no  law  should  be 
enacted  or  repealed,  no  change  in  the  policy  or  general 
management  be  made,  without  first  consulting  all 
these  interests,  and  weighing  all  the  consequences. 

Again :  for  the  various  emergencies  that  arise,  both 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  243 

in  legislating  in  and  administering  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment, there  is  a  constant  and  urgent  demand  for 
that  kind  of  talent  denominated  by  Mr.  Locke,  "  good 
round-about  common  sense."  It  is  possessed  to  a  very 
Limited  extent  by  some  of  the  most  gjfted.  Indeed, 
notwithstanding  it  is  "  common  sense,"  it  is  a  rare  ac- 
complishment. Hence  many  possessing  qualities  that 
would  render  them  successful  in  many  departments  of 
business,  would  fail,  if  submitted  to  the  severe  test  of 
governing  and  teaching;  since  to  do  these  things 
well,  requires  greater  versatility  of  talent  than  al- 
most any  other  employment.  This  last  arises  from 
the  fact  that  almost  all  other  employments  are  repre- 
sented in  right  teaching.  There  is  therefore  a  neces- 
sity here  for  a  universal  talent,  or  the  faculty  of  adjust- 
ing the  means  to  the  ends  to  be  accomplished,  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways,  and  in  a  great  many  departments 
of  business. 

Section  2 — Judicial  Ability. — Laws  are  to  be  pub- 
lished and  expounded.  All  must  be  notified  of  their 
existence ;  their  scope  and  meaning  must  be  limited 
and  explained  by  the  teacher  or  the  government. 
Hence  arises  another  function  of  the  teacher.  He  con- 
stitutes the  judiciary,  and  to  his  tribunal  must  be  re- 
ferred all  cases  of  difficult  or  doubtful  interpretation. 
In  addition  to  many  other  good  qualities  requisite 
here,  we  might  name  good  judgment,  or  the  ability  to 
discriminate  in  difficult  and  complicated  cases.  It  re- 
sults, it  is  true,  in  a  great  degree,  from  a  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  various  forces  of  human  nature. 
Cases  are  continually  arising  for  adjudication,  that  will 
tax  to  the  utmost  the  teacher's  discriminating  powers. 
It  is  highly  important  that  all  his  decisions  be  as  near- 


244  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

ly  correct  as  possible,  so  that  there  be  no  necessity  for 
revision  or  appeal.  The  teacher,  therefore,  needs  time 
for  deliberation.  He  should  not  be  hasty  in  his  decis- 
ions. 

Again  :  all  decisions  should  be  rendered  in  as  plain 
and  explicit  terms  as  possible.  They  should  be  so 
pointed  that  but  one  interpretation  may  be  reduced 
from  them,  yet  not  binding  or  committing  the  teacher 
to  any  unpleasant  alternative  or  unwise  polic}7.  Am- 
biguity often  leads  to  misapprehension,  and  uninten- 
tional error,  and  leaves  a  given  policy  exposed  where 
perhaps  it  was  intended  to  guard  it.  There  should 
therefore  be  a  fair  and  distinct  understanding:  in  ref- 
erence  to  the  common  duties  of  the  school. 

It  also  stands  a  teacher  in  hand  to  be^rm.  After  a 
conclusion  has  been  fairly  reached,  and  the  decision 
made  known,  it  should  not  be  changed  for  any  ordi- 
nary cause.  A  case  in  which  any  change  would  be 
admissible,  must  be  one  in  which  a  greater  difficulty 
will  result  from  adhering  to  it  than  from  any  modifica- 
tion. But  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  firmness 
and  obstinacy.  The  one  never  yields  the  truth :  the 
other  seldom  yields  to  it. 

Section  3 — Executive  Authority. — Laws  must  be 
enforced  as  well  as  enacted  and  expounded.  This 
gives  rise  to  the  third  function  of  government,  viz., 
the  Executive.  This  department  sometimes  becomes 
the  most  difficult,  owing  chiefly  to  two  causes  :  1,  the 
inadequacy  or  want  of  adaptation  of  the  laws  to  be  en- 
forced ;  2,  the  inefficiency  of  the  executive  power. 

A  good  system  of  laws,  with  poor  executive  talent, 
would  be  about  as  inefficient,  as  poor  laws  would  be 
with  good  executive  talent.     One  of  the  leading  char- 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  245 

aeteristics  in  good  executive  officers,  is  energy,  or  in- 
ternal force.  It  takes  up  the  decisions  as  soon  as  ren- 
dered, and  infuses  life  into  them  by  putting  them  in 
progress  of  execution.  Promptness  to  execute,  is  a 
rare  gift ;  but  it  acquires  additional  strength  and  force 
when  it  is  exercised  in  the  affairs  of  the  school-room. 
This  quality  has  been  noticed  elsewhere  in  this  book. 
In  executing  the  demands  of  government,  so  effect- 
ually does  it  call  into  exercise  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  and  so  engaged  do  they  sometimes  become,  that 
there  is  great  danger  of  arousing  the  passions;  hence 
what  is  needed  here,  is  determination  without  passion  or 
undue  excitement.  Again:  the  nature  of  the  penalties 
is  such  that  there  will  be  a  constant  demand  for 
syynpathy  and  generosity.  The  very  act  of  controlling 
or  executing  the  laws,  unless  checked  by  a  counter 
influence,  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  indifference  or  ar- 
rogance. The  necessity  for  the  exercise  of  these 
virtues  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  else- 
where. 

Article  3 — qualifications  and  Methods. 

The  means  to  be  employed  and  the  methods  of 
application  may  be  briefly  summed  up  thus : — 

Section  1 — Personal  Worth.  This  may  include 
a  great  many  good  qualities,  but  refers  mainly  to 
strength  of  mind  and  force  of  character.  These  con- 
stitute the  most  potent  influences  in  the  control  of 
human  beings.  We  instinctively  yield  a  tribute  of 
respect  to  talent,  wherever  found,  but  especially  if 
found  associated  with  high  moral  powers. 

Personal  worth  may  exhibit  itself  in  various  ways, 
among  which    are  personal  appearance   and  general 


24G  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

demeanor.  These  are  well  calculated  to  make  favor- 
able impressions.  No  one  can  disguise  the  fact  that 
a  commanding  appearance,  neatness  and  cleanliness 
of  person  and  habits,  combined  with  a  gentle  and 
modest  demeanor,  will  command  respect  everywhere ; 
while  their  opposites,  even  if  associated  with  the  most 
brilliant  talents,  will  fail  to  produce  the  good  results 
desired. 

The  accomplishments,  ease  and  elegance  in  address, 
highly  cultivated  social  qualities,  and  the  vivacity  and 
cheerfulness  arising  from  good  health  and  physical 
culture,  can  not  fail  to  constitute  a  ready  passport  to 
almost  all  hearts. 

Section  2 — Self-Control. —  Again:  the  very  fac- 
ulty, whose  cultivation  is  so  strongly  recommended 
under  the  head  of  "  objects,"  viz.,  "  Self-Control,"  is 
one  of  the  strongest  means  of  governing  that  exists. 
A  man  can  never  regulate  and  direct  successfully  the 
forces  in  others,  until  he  first  regulates  and  controls 
those  within  himself.  In  this,  again,  may  be  seen  the 
self-perpetuating  nature  of  government. 

There  will  be  frequent,  and  indeed  almost  a  con- 
stant, demand  for  the  exercise  of  moderation  and  for- 
bearance in  matters  pertaining  to  the  administration 
of  the  affairs  of  government ;  moderation  in  our  views 
and  expectations — for  children  are  subject  to  tempta- 
tions for  which  we  are  disposed  to  make  too  little 
allowance,  and  forbearance  for  their  weaknesses  and 
short-comings. 

Favoritism  in  the  school-room  is  sadly  out  of  place, 
whatever  may  be  its  imaginary  utility.  In  the  ad- 
ministration of  affairs  pertaining  to  teaching,  there 
must  be  an  entire  devotion  to  truth,  and  an  equal  dis- 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  247 

tribution  of  favors  and  restraints,  irrespective  of  any 
personal  preferences  or  feelings.  This  will  be  a  diffi- 
cult task  for  many,  and  perhaps  for  all.  So  strong 
are  the  likes  and  dislikes  of  our  nature,  and  so  un- 
consciously and  necessarily  will  certain  qualities  of 
mind  and  body  win  their  way  into  our  regard,  that 
it  will  require  more  than  an  ordinary  share  of  watch- 
fulness in  order  to  avoid  biases  in  our  judgment,  and 
partiality  in  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
school-room.  But  disinterestedness,  and  an  earnest  de- 
votion to  truth,  should  mark  all  our  intercourse  with 
pupils. 

In  the  administration  of  justice,  there  should  be  no 
hesitation  or  trepidation,  or  want  of  firmness  or  decis- 
ion of  character  manifested  by  the  teacher.  The  pur- 
poses should  be  well  formed,  and  then  executed  with 
that  confidence  which  the  cause  of  truth,  and  the  love 
of  truth  and  the  right  alone  can  inspire.  There 
should,  however,  be  no  affected  confidence,  nor  over- 
weening assurance.  It  should  be  tempered  with  be- 
coming modesty  and  humility.  This  will  inspire  con- 
fidence in  the  hearts  of  the  pupils  for  their  teacher, 
and  strengthen  that  bond  of  union  so  necessary  be- 
tween the  governor  and  the  governed. 

Section  3 — General  Management. — We  conclude 
with  a  few  words  in  reference  to  general  management, 
which  will  refer,  in  some  measure  to  every  depart- 
ment of  school-room  duties,  but  especially  to  the  mat- 
ters of  governing. 

In  addition  to  other  qualities  and  means  already 
alluded  to,  fidelity  and  integrity  should  mark  every 
transaction.  It  will  not  add  either  to  the  dignity  or 
influence  of  the  teacher,  to  make  large  promises  or 


248  THE   ART   OF    TEACHING. 

threats  without  a  moral  certainty,  at  least,  of  fulfilling 
them.  Therefore  let  him  avoid  every  thing,  in  his 
intercourse  with  pupils,  that  will  have  a  tendency 
either  to  raise  their  expectations  or  excite  their  fears, 
beyond  a  healthy  degree  of  interest :  or  that  would,  in 
case  of  unavoidable  failure,  or  disappointment,  destroy 
the  confidence  in  his  fidelity  and  integrity. 

Let  him  manifest  a  zeal  and  devotion  in  the  perform- 
ance of  every  duty,  and  in  the  interest  and  welfare  of 
his  pupils,  that  will  convince  them  that  he  is  at  once 
their  best  friend  and  benefactor,  and  abundantly  able 
to  reward  the  good  and  punish  the  bad.  In  all  mat- 
ters where  punishment  of  any  kind  is  to  be  inflicted, 
let  him  not  forget  its  great  objects,  and  that  justice 
mingled  with  mercy  is  the  divinest  exhibition  of  the  In- 
finite Mind  we  have  on  record  ;  that  the  more  closely 
he  can  imitate  this  superhuman  pattern,  the  more 
nearly  he  fulfills  the  conditions  of  a  perfect  system  of 
rewards  and  punishments;  that  no  law  should  be  enact- 
ed for  the  punishment  of  offenders,  that  does  not  look 
to  their  reformation  as  the  one  great  central  idea;  and 
that  no  penalty,  however  trifling  or  severe,  should 
be  inflicted  merely  for  the  penalty's  sake,  much  less  to 
gratify  revenge. 

Lastly:  let  mildness  of 'manner ',  coupled  with  severity 
of  purpose,  mark  all  his  demeanor  and  intercourse 
with  pupils ;  but  more  especially  in  those  cases  in  which 
he  is  called  upon  to  perform  that  most  difficult  and 
dangerous  task,  viz.,  the  administration  of  punish- 
ment. And  above  all  things,  let  him  put  his  trust  in 
Almighty  God — the  great  and  only  disposer  of  events, 
— that  he  may  be  guided  in  the  most  arduous  and 
responsible  duty  ever  conferred  npoTj   mortals — The 

Education  of  Human  Beings.  ^^^^jR-^3^^^ 

'^^  OP  THB^n^S 

UNI7BRSIT7] 


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